CHAP

T
ER 4

CHEM
COM ICAL
P O
IN A SITON
CE L L
Prepar
ed by:
Tutor
N u ru l
 W AT ER
4.1

2
 Polarity of water

s o f wa t e r
Pr op e rt i e

 Water is an inorganic compound – hydrogen and oxygen

 Water molecules are polar molecules because shared electrons

between oxygen and hydrogen will be attracted towards oxygen
which is more electronegative

 This polarity produces hydrogen bonds and makes water to act as a

universal solvent

 The universal solvent properties of water allow solutes such as

glucose and electrolytes to be transported through the plasma
membranes into cells for biochemical reactions
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 Cohesive and adhesive forces

o f wate r
Properties

 Water molecules are attached to each other

through a cohesive force

 At the same time, water molecules are also

attached to other surfaces through adhesive
force

 Both forces produce the capillary action

which allows water to enter and move along
narrow spaces, such as in the xylem tube
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 Specific heat capacity of water

o f wate r
Properties

 Water has a high specific heat capacity of 4.2 kJ

kg–1 °C–1

 This means that 4.2 kJ of heat energy is required

to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water
by 1°C

 Water absorbs a lot of heat energy with a small

rise in temperature. This property is very
important to maintain the body temperature.
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 H YD RATE
4.2 CARBO

6
 o h y drat e?
at i s c arb
Wh

An organic
compound The ratio of The chemical
consists of elements is formula is
carbon, C:H:O (1:2:1) (CH2O)n
hydrogen and
oxygen

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 o hy d r at e
of c ar b
Ty p e s
Types of carbohydrate

Monosaccharide Disaccharide Polysaccharide

Glucose Maltose Starch

Fructose Sucrose Glycogen

Galactose Lactose Cellulose 8

 ch ar i d e
Monosac
The monomer of carbohydrate

Combination of monosaccharides forms a polymer through

Glucose, condensation reaction
fructose
and Most monosaccharides taste sweet, can form crystals and
galactose dissolve in water

All monosaccharides are known as reducing sugar.

 Reducing sugar has the ability to reduce the blue
copper(II) sulphate to a brick red precipitate of
copper(I) oxide when heated in Benedict's solution.

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 h ar id e
Disacc
A complex sugar formed through a condensation of two
monosaccharides molecules.
 This process involves the removal of a water molecule

Maltose,
sucrose Disaccharides can also be broken down to their
and monosaccharide units through hydrolysis
 This process involves addition of one water molecule.
lactose

Lactose and maltose are reducing sugars while sucrose is a

non-reducing sugar

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 ch ar id e
Disac

Formation of disaccharide

Breakdown of disaccharide

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 ha r i de
Polysacc
A sugar polymer consists of many monosaccharide monomers

Starch, It is not soluble in water due to their large molecular size

glycogen
and
cellulose
It does not taste sweet and cannot form crystal form

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 a kd own of
a n d br e
ti on
Forma r ide
s ac c h a
poly

It is formed through the

condensation process and involves
hundreds of monosaccharides to
form long molecular chains

Polysaccharides can be broken

down into their monomers
through a hydrolysis process with
the
 addition of diluted acids,
 enzyme reaction and
 using a boiling method.

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 t an c e o f
Impor ate s
y d r
carboh
As a food
reserve. For
example, glycogen
in animal cells and
starch in plant
cells
As a support
As a source of structure. For
energy. For example, cellulose
example glucose in the plant cell
wall

Importance of
carbohydrate

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 PR OTE IN
4.3

15
 f p ro t e i n
c t u r e o
Stru
Amino acids

Protein is composed of one or more polymers

known as polypeptide Dipeptide

Each polypeptide is made up of monomers or

amino acids Polypeptide

Combination of two amino acids which are

linked together by a peptide bond forms a
Protein
dipeptide

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 t i on a n d
Forma o f p ro t e i n
kd o w n
brea

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 an ce o f
Import
protein

To synthesis To form keratin

enzymes, in the skin,
To repair
To build new cells hormones, collagen in bone
damaged tissues
antibodies and and myosin in
haemoglobin muscle tissue

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 S
4.4 LIPID

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 of l i p i d s
o p er t i e s
Pr

Hydrophobic compounds found in plant and animal tissues

Made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen elements

Has higher ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms

Insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvent

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 of l i p i d s
Types
Fats Fats and oils are triglycerides
Triglyceride is an ester formed by the condensation of glycerol and fatty acids
Two types of fatty acids; saturated fatty acid and unsaturated fatty acid

Wax Contains one molecule of alcohol that combines with another molecule of fatty acid
It is waterproof
Can be found in the cuticle of the epidermis of leaves

Phospholipid A major component of plasma membrane

Made up of one molecule of glycerol that combines with two molecules of fatty
acid and one phosphate group
Steroids A type of lipids that do not contain fatty acids

Examples of steroids are cholesterol, testosterone, estrogen and progesterone

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 an d t h e
r m at i o n l y ceri d e
Fo o f a t r ig
n
breakdow

 Triglyceride is formed through the condensation of one

molecule of glycerol and three molecules of fatty
acids

 Triglycerides can also be broken down into fatty acids

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and glycerol by hydrolysis reaction
 s atu rated
i es b et w een
Similarit nsaturated fats
ats an d u
f

Both consist of
Both contain glycerol
carbon, hydrogen and
and fatty acid
oxygen elements

Both contain nonpolar

molecules

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 n sa tu rated
c e s bet wee
Differen nsaturated fats
ats an d u
f

Saturated fats   Unsaturated fats

Only have single bonds Presence of double bond Have at least one double
between carbon atoms bond between carbon atoms

Cannot form chemical bonds Ability to react with Can still receive one or more
with additional hydrogen hydrogen atom additional hydrogen atoms
atoms
Solid Condition at room Liquid
temperature
Butter and animal fat Source Olive oil and fish oil
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 o f l i p i ds
r t an c e
Impo

As a reserve energy
for animals
Cholesterol helps in
synthesis of steroid As a layer to protect
hormone internal organs

Importance
of lipids

Glycolipid help in the

cell identification Act as a heat
process insulator for animals
Glycolipid ensure the
stability of the
plasma membrane
 LE IC ACID
4.5 NUC

26
 f n u cl ei c
Types o
acids

Nucleic acid is a complex molecule

that formed from the elements
of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen and phosphorus
 f n uc l ei c
n o m er o
Mo
acids
Nucleic acid is a polymer chain comprising of
nucleotide monomers

Monomer of nucleic acid is nucleotide

Each nucleotide consists of a

 pentose sugar (5-carbon sugar),
 a nitrogenous base and
 a phosphate group

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 bo n uc l ei c
Deoxyri )
i d (D N A
ac

Consists of two
polynucleotide chains
that are intertwined in It contains deoxyribose
opposite direction and sugar
form the double helix
structure

The nitrogenous base for

Adenine will pair with
DNA are adenine(A),
thymine while guanine will
thymine(T), guanine(G)
pair with cytosine
and cytosine(C)
 l eic a ci d
Ribonuc
(RNA)

Consists of single polynucleotide chain

which is shorter compared to DNA

The nitrogenous base for RNA are

adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil

The three main types of RNA are;

messenger RNA (mRNA) , ribosomal
RNA (rRNA) , transfer RNA (tRNA)
 t an c e o f
Impor d s i n a ce ll
ic a ci Carrier of hereditary information
nucle  the characteristics of an organism is determined by DNA
 DNA contains genetic codes carried by nitrogenous bases
(A, G, C and T) for the synthesis of protein

Production of protein
 The genetic code is written as a series of three
bases that determine the sequence of amino acids
in protein to be synthesised.

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Production of protein
 For example; the AUG codon on mRNA code for
amino acid methionine. The three bases sequence in
DNA is transcribed into mRNA codons which are
then translated into the amino acid sequence to
form a single polypeptide chain.

 The polypeptide chain that builds the

corresponding protein.
 m o so m e s
n of chr o
Forma ti o o te in s
A a n d p r
f rom D N

 Chromosomes are formed from

DNA polynucleotide chains that
are wound around a protein
called histone.

 Histones do not carry genetic

information.

 DNA molecules combine with

histone proteins to form
nucleosomes.

 Nucleosomes are intertwined to

form the chromosome
structure.
Than
k You!