UNIT – I: Syllabus

 Introduction: AI problems,
 Foundation of AI and history of AI ,
 Intelligent agents: Agents and Environments,
 The concept of rationality,
 The nature of environments,
 Structure of agents,
 Problem solving agents,
 Problem formulation.
 What is Artificial Intelligence?

Artificial Intelligence is composed of two words Artificial and Intelligence, where

Artificial defines "man-made," and intelligence defines "thinking power", hence AI
means "a man-made thinking power.“
Artificial + Intelligence

Man Made + Thinking Power

So, we can define AI as:
"It is a branch of computer science by which we can create intelligent machines which
can behave like a human, think like humans, and able to make decisions."
 Artificial Intelligence exists when a machine can have human based skills such
as Knowledge, learning, reasoning, problem-solving perception, language
understanding, Ability to manipulate and move objects etc.
 With Artificial Intelligence you do not need to preprogram a machine to do
some work, despite that you can create a machine with programmed
algorithms which can work with own intelligence, and that is the awesomeness
of AI.
 AI PROBLEMS

 AI problems (speech recognition, NLP, vision, automatic programming,

knowledge representation, etc.) can be paired with techniques (NN,
search, Bayesian networks, production systems etc.).
 AI problems can be classified into 3 types:
1. Mundane Tasks
2. Formal Tasks
3. Expert tasks
1.Mundane Tasks :-
This type of tasks are easy for humans to perform, and almost all are able to
master them.
Examples:
1. Perception
- Vision
-Speech
2.Natural Language
-Understanding
-Generation
-Translation
3. Commonsense
reasoning
4. Robot control
2.Formal Tasks :-

 To solve these problems we must explore a large number of solutions quickly

and choose the Best One.
Examples:
1. Games
-Chess
-Backgammon
-Checkers
-Go
2. Mathematics
-Geometry
-Logic
-Integral calculus
- Proving properties of programs
3.Expert Tasks :-
 The third type of tasks requires skill development and/or intelligence
and only some specialists can perform them well.
Examples:
1. Engineering
-Design
-Fault finding
-Manufacturing planning
2. Scientific analysis
3. Medical diagnosis
4. Financial analysis
 Foundations of AI

 To create the AI first we should know that how intelligence is

composed, so the Intelligence is an intangible part of our brain which is
a combination of Reasoning, learning, problem-solving perception,
language understanding, Ability to manipulate and move objects etc.
 To achieve the above factors for a machine or software Artificial
Intelligence requires the following discipline:
Foundations of AI
 The Foundation of AI
Philosophy
 At that time, the study of human intelligence began with no formal
expression
 Initiate the idea of mind as a machine and its internal operations
 The Foundation of AI
Mathematics
formalizes the three main area of AI: computation, logic, and probability
⚫Computation leads to analysis of the problems that can be computed
⚫complexity theory
⚫Probability contributes the “degree of belief” to handle uncertainty in
AI
⚫Decision theory combines probability theory and utility theory (bias)
 The Foundation of AI
Psychology
 How do humans think and act?
 The study of human reasoning and acting
 Provides reasoning models for AI
 Strengthen the ideas
 humans and other animals can be considered as information
processing machines
 The Foundation of AI
Computer Engineering
 How to build an efficient computer?
 Provides the artifact that makes AI application possible
 The power of computer makes computation of large and difficult
problems more easily
 AI has also contributed its own work to computer science, including:
time-sharing, the linked list data type, OOP, etc.
 The Foundation of AI
Control theory and Cybernetics
 How can artifacts operate under their own control?
 The artifacts adjust their actions
 To do better for the environment over time
 Based on an objective function and feedback from the environment
 Not limited only to linear systems but also other problems
 as language, vision, and planning, etc.
 The Foundation of AI
Linguistics
 For understanding natural languages
 different approaches has been adopted from the linguistic work
 Formal languages
 Syntactic and semantic analysis
 Knowledge representation
 History of AI
 1943 McCulloch & Pitts : Boolean circuit model of brain.
 “A Logical Calculus of Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity” is published,
-Explaining for the first time how it is possible for neural networks to
compute.
 Alan Turing

1950 Turing’s “Computing Machinery

and Intelligence”, articulated a complete
Vision of AI.
Solving problems by searching through
the space of possible solutions, guided by
Heuristics.
 Illustrated his ideas on machine
Intelligence By reference to chess.
 The Turing Test
Turing test
A test to empirically determine whether a computer has achieved
intelligence

Figure 13.2
In a Turing test, the interrogator must
determine which respondent is the
computer and which is the human
 1952-1956: Samuel’s checkers(draughts) program.
 1956:General Problem Solver (GPS) is a computer program created
in 1959 by Herbert A. Simon, J. C. Shaw, and Allen Newell intended
to work as a universal problem solver machine.
 1959: Gelernter’ Geometry Engine.
 1961: James Slagle(PhD dissertation, MIT) wrote(in List) the first
symbolic integration Program, SAINT, which solved calculus
problems at the college freshman Level.
 1963: Thomas Evans program analogy to solve IQ test type analogy
problems.
 1963: Edward A.Feigenbaum & Julian Feldman published computers
and Thought,the first collection of articles about artificial
Intelligence.
 1964: Danny Bob row shows that computers can understand
natural language well enough to solve algebra word problems
correctly.
 1965: J.Allen Robinson invented a mechanical proof
procedure,the Resolution Method,which allowed programs to
work efficiently with formal logic as a representation language.
 1966-74: AI discovers computational complexity.
 1967: Dendral Program (Feigenbaum, Lederberg, Buchanan,
Sutherland at Stanford),First Successful knowledge-based
program for Scientific reasoning.

 1968: Marvin Minsky & Seymour Papert publish Perceptrons

demonstrating limits of simple neural nets.
 1969-79 : Earl development of Knowledge-based Systems
 1974: MYCIN(stanford) ,an expert System demonstrated the power of
rule-based systems for knowledge representation and inference in
medical diagnosis and therapy.
 1975: Sacerdoti developed a planning programs,
ABSTRIPS(Abstraction based Stanford Research Institute Problem
Solver)
 Minsky-Frames as a representation of knowledge.
 1976-Doug Lenat’s AM program demonstrated the discovery
model(search for interesting conjectures(an opinion or judgment that is
not based on proof)).
 1978-Herb Simon wins the Nobel Prize in Economics for his theory of
bounded rationality.
 1980s: LISP Machines developed and marketed.First expert system shells
and commercial applications.
 1985-95 Neural networks return to popularity.
 1988-an increase of activity on probabilistic and decision-theoretic
methods Rapid increase in technical depth of mainstream AI,”Nouvelle
AI”; Alife,Gas,soft computing
 1990’s: Major advances in all areas of AI
-machine Learning, data mining
-Intelligent tutoring,
-case-based reasoning,
-vision, virtual reality, games, and other topics.
 Rod Brooks’ COG Project at MIT, with numerous collaborators, makes
significant progress in building a humanoid robot.
 First officisl Robo-Cup soccer match featuring table-top matches with 40
teams of interacting robots.
 Late 90’s: Web crawlers and other AI-based information extraction
programs become essential in widespread use of the world-wide-web.
. 2000: The Nomad robot explores remote regions of Antarctica looking
for meteorite samples.
 Intelligent agents: Agents and Environments

• An agent is anything that can be viewed as perceiving its environment

through sensors and SENSOR acting upon that environment through
actuators.
 An PERCEPTSEQUENCE agent's percept sequence is the complete history of
everything the agent has ever perceived.
Example 1:
 `A human agent has eyes, ears, and other organs for sensors and
 hands, legs, mouth, and other body parts for actuators.

Example 2:
A robotic agent might have cameras and infrared range finders
for sensors and
 various motors for actuators.
Agents Interact with environments through sensors and actuators
 AGENT FUNCTION: Mathematically speaking, we say that an agent's
behavior is described by the agent function that maps any given percept
sequence to an action.
 AGENTPROGRAM Internally, the agent function for an artificial agent
will be implemented by an AGENTPROGRAM.
 This particular world has just two locations: squares A and B.
The vacuum agent perceives which square it is in and whether there
is dirt in the square.
 It can choose to move left, move right, suck up the dirt, or do
nothing.
One very simple agent function is the following: if the current square
is dirty, then suck, otherwise move to the other square.
 Good Behavior: The concept of Rationality

 A rational agent is one that does the right thing-conceptually speaking,

every entry in the table for the agent function is filled out correctly.
 we will say that the right action is the one that will cause the agent to be
most successful.
 Definition of a rational agent

 For each possible percept sequence, a rational agent should select an

action that is expected to maximize its performance measure, given the
evidence provided by the percept sequence and whatever built-in
knowledge the agent has.
 Rationality

What is rational at any given time depends on four things:

• The performance measure that defines the criterion of success.
• The agent's prior knowledge of the environment.
• The actions that the agent can perform.
• The agent's percept sequence to date.
 Example of rational action performed by any intelligent agent:

 Automated Taxi Driver:

 Performance Measure: Safe, fast, legal, comfortable trip, maximize profits.
 Environment: Roads, other traffic, customers.
 Actuators: Steering wheel, accelerator, brake, signal, horn.
 Sensors: Cameras, sonar, speedometer, GPS, odometer, engine sensors,
keyboard.
 The nature of environments

 Specifying the task environment:-

we had to specify the PEAS (Performance, Environment, Actuators, Sensors) description
under the Task Environment.
Properties of task environments
 The Structure of Agents

 Agent = architecture +program

Four basic kinds of agent programs are:
1.Simple reflex agents;
2.Model-based reflex agents;
3.Goal-based agents; and
4. Utility-based agents.
 1. Simple reflex agents

 The simplest kind of agent is the simple reflex agent.

 These agents select actions on the basis AGENT of the current percept,
ignoring the rest of the percept history.
2. Model-based reflex agents
 knowledge about "how the world works -whether implemented in
simple Boolean circuits or in complete scientific theories-is called a
model of the world. An agent that uses such a MODEL-BASED AGENT.
3.Goal-based agents

 A current state description, the agent needs some sort of goal

information that describes situations that are desirable.
4.Utility-based agents

 A utility function maps a state (or a sequence of states) onto a real

number, which describes the associated degree of happiness.
 There are Two kinds of cases where goals are inadequate.
 First, when there are conflicting goals, only some of which can be
achieved (for example, speed and safety), the utility function specifies
the appropriate tradeoff.
 Second, when there are several goals that the agent can aim for, none of
which can be achieved with certainty, utility provides a way in which the
likelihood of success can be weighed up against the importance of the
goals.
Problem solving agents
 Intelligent agents are supposed to maximize their performance measure.
Problem Types
 Problem Formulation

 we proposed a formulation of the problem of getting to Bucharest in terms

of the initial state, successor function, goal test, and path cost. This
formulation seems
 Toy problem

 we will examine is the vacuum world.

 This can be formulated as a problem as follows:
 States: The agent is in one of two locations, each of which might or might not
contain dirt. Thus there are 2 x 2 Power 2 = 8 possible world states.
 Initial state: Any state can be designated as the initial state.
 Successor function: This generates the legal states that result from trying the three
actions (Left, Right, and Suck). The complete state space is shown in Figure 3.3. Goal
test: This checks whether all the squares are clean.
 Path cost: Each step costs 1, so the path cost is the number of steps in the path.
 8-queens problem
 The goal of the 8-queens problem is to place eight queens on
a chessboard such that no queen attacks any other.
 (A queen attacks any piece in the same row, column or diagonal.)
 Figure 3.5 shows an attempted solution that fails: the queen in the rightmost
column is attacked by the queen at the top left.
 The first incremental formulation one might try is the following:
 States: Any arrangement of 0 to 8 queens on the board is a state.
 Initial state: No queens on the board.
 Successor function: Add a queen to any empty square.
 Goal test: 8 queens are on the board, none attacked.
This formulation reduces the 8-queens state space from 3 x 1014 to just
2,057, and solutions are easy to find.
 Example: Water Jug Problem
 Consider the following problem: A Water Jug Problem: You are given two
jugs, a 4-gallon one and a 3-gallon one, a pump which has unlimited water
which you can use to fill the jug, and the ground on which water may be
poured. Neither jug has any measuring markings on it. How can you get
exactly 2 gallons of water in the 4-gallon jug?
 State Representation and Initial State – we will represent a state of the
problem as a tuple (x, y) where x represents the amount of water in the 4-
gallon jug and y represents the amount of water in the 3-gallon jug. Note
0 ≤ x ≤ 4, and 0 ≤ y ≤ 3.
 Our initial state: (0,0)
 Goal Predicate – state = (2,y) where 0 ≤ y ≤ 3.
 Operators – we must define a set of operators that will take us from one
state to another:
Through Graph Search, the following solution is found :
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