Chapter III: Sociology of

Religion

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 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 After studying this chapter, you should be able to do
the following:
o Define the basic elements of religion.
o Differentiate among the major types of religion.
o Apply sociological perspectives to describe and
explain religion.
o Describe the basic types of religious organization.

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 How do sociologists think about religion ?

 When sociologists study religion, they do so as

unbiased scientists and not as believers (or disbelievers)
in any particular faith. This stance has a number of
implications:
o Sociologists are not concerned with whether
religious beliefs are true or false. The sociological
perspectives regard religions as socially constructed
by human beings. Thus sociologists put aside their
personal beliefs and address the human rather than the
Devine aspect of a religion.

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o Sociologists are specially concerned with the social
organization of a religion. The sociology of religion
considers how different religious institutions and
organizations actually function.
o They look into the values and beliefs of a religion
and the way it is related to the larger society as religions
are primary sources of the deepest-seated norms and
values.
o Sociologists have often viewed religions as a major
source of social solidarity in that they offer believers a
common set of norms and values.
o Religious beliefs, rituals and bonds create ‘a
moral community’ in which all members know
how to behave. 4
o If a single religion dominates a society, the religion
may be an important source of social solidarity –
although it may also be oppressive if it requires
absolute conformity to a particular set of beliefs and
punishes those who deviate.
o If a society's members adhere to competing
religions, religious differences may lead to social
conflicts.

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 What is the Religion?
 Definitions
Religion is a social institution composed of a unified
system of beliefs, symbols, and rituals—based on some
sacred or supernatural realm—that guides human
behavior, gives meaning to life, and unites believers into
a community.
 Religion is a system of beliefs, practices, and
philosophical values shared by a group of people; it
defines the sacred, helps explain life, and offers
salvation from the problems of human existence.
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o It is recognized as one of society’s important
institutions.
o For many people, religious beliefs provide the answers
for seemingly unanswerable questions about the meaning
of life and death.

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 Religion and the Meaning of Life
o Religion seeks to answer important questions such as
why we exist, why people suffer and die, and what
happens when we die.
oWhereas science and medicine typically rely on
existing scientific evidence to respond to these questions,
religion seeks to explain suffering, death, and injustice in
the realm of the sacred.

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o In his classic study, The Elementary Forms of
Religious Life, first published in 1915, Émile Durkheim
observed that all religions divide the universe into two
mutually exclusive categories, the profane and the
sacred.
o The sacred consists of things that are awe
inspiring and knowable only through extraordinary
experiences.
oThe profane consists of all empirically
observable things— that is, things that are
knowable through common, everyday experiences.
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o According to Emile Durkheim, sacred refers to
those aspects of life that are extraordinary or
supernatural—in other words, those things that are
set apart as “holy.”
o People feel a sense of awe, reverence, deep respect,
or fear for that which is considered sacred.
o Across cultures and in different eras, many things
have been considered sacred, including invisible gods,
spirits, specific animals or trees, altars, crosses, holy
books, and special words or songs that only the
initiated could speak or sing.

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o The sacred can consist of almost anything: objects
fashioned just for religious purposes (such as a cross), a
geographical location (Mount Sinai), a place
constructed for religious observance (a temple), a word
or phrase (“Our Father, who art in heaven. . .”), or even
an animal (the cow to Hindus, for example).
oTo devout Muslims, the Sabbath, which falls on
Friday, is a sacred day.
oTo Hindus, the cow is holy, not to be killed or eaten.

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o These are not ideas to be debated; they simply exist
as unchallengeable truths.
o Religious symbols acquire their particular sacred
meanings through the religious belief system of which
they are a part.

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o Those things that people do not set apart as sacred are
referred to as profane—the everyday, secular or
“worldly” aspects of life (Collins,1982).
oThus, whereas sacred beliefs are rooted in the holy or
supernatural, secular beliefs have their foundation in
scientific knowledge or everyday explanations.
oWhat is considered sacred has the capacity to
represent shared values, sentiments, power, or beliefs.
oThe profane is not supported in this manner; it may
have utility for one or more individuals, but it has little
public relevance.

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o In addition to sacred symbols and a system of beliefs,
religion also includes specific rituals.
o People often act out their religious beliefs in the
form of rituals—regularly repeated and carefully
prescribed forms of behaviors that symbolize a
cherished value or belief.
o Rituals are patterns of behavior or practices that are
related to the sacred.
o Rituals range from songs and prayers to offerings
and sacrifices that worship or praise a supernatural
being, an ideal, or a set of supernatural principles.
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o For example,
• Muslims bow toward Mecca, the holy city of Islam,
five times a day at fixed times to pray to Allah
•Christians participate in the celebration of
communion (or the “Lord’s Supper”) to commemorate
the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus.
o Rituals differ from everyday actions in that they
involve very strictly determined behavior.
o The rituals involved in praying or in observing
communion are carefully orchestrated and must be
followed with precision.

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 The Elements of Religion
 All religions contain certain shared elements,
including ritual and prayer, emotion, belief, and
organization.
 Ritual and Prayer
o All religions have formalized social rituals, but
many also feature private rituals such as prayer.
o Of course, the particular events that make up
rituals vary widely from culture to culture and from
religion to religion.
oAll religions include a belief in the existence of
beings or forces that human beings cannot
experience. In other words, all religions include a16
 o Hence, they also include prayer, or a means for
individuals to address or communicate with
supernatural beings or forces, typically by speaking
aloud while holding the body in a prescribed posture
or making stylized movements or gestures.
 Emotion
o One of the functions of ritual and prayer is to produce
an appropriate emotional state. This can be done in
many ways.
o In some religions, participants in rituals deliberately
attempt to alter their state of consciousness through
fasting, sleep deprivation, and induction of physical pain.
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 Belief
o All religions endorse a belief system, usually one that
includes a supernatural order and, often, a set of values
to be applied to daily life.
o Belief systems can vary widely.
oSome religions believe that a valuable quality can flow
from a sacred object—animate or inanimate, part or
whole—to a lesser object.
o Numerous Christian sects, for instance, practice the
laying on of hands, whereby a healer channels divine
energy into afflicted people and thus heals them.
o Such beliefs are quite common among the world’s
religions. 18
 Organization
o Many religions have an organizational structure through
which specialists can be recruited and trained, religious
meetings conducted, and interaction facilitated between
society and the members of the religion.
oThe organization also promotes interaction among the
members of the religion to foster a sense of unity and group
solidarity.
o Rituals may be performed in the presence of other
members or limited to certain locations such as temples, or
to processions from one place to another.
oAlthough some religious behavior may be carried out by
individuals in private, all religions demand some public,
shared participation. 19
 Major Types (categories) of Religions
 Religions have been classified into four main
categories based on their dominant belief: simple
supernaturalism, animism, theism, and transcendent
(abstract) idealism.
 Supernaturalism postulates the existence of
nonpersonalized supernatural forces that can, and often
do, influence human events.
o These forces are thought to inhabit animate and
inanimate objects alike—people, trees, rocks, places,
even spirits or ghosts—and to come and go at will.

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o It is the belief that supernatural forces affect people’s
lives either positively or negatively.
oThis type of religion does not acknowledge specific
gods or supernatural spirits but focuses instead on
impersonal forces that may exist in people or natural
objects..
o Supernatural beings fall into two broad categories,
those of nonhuman origin, such as gods and spirits, and
those of human origin, such as ghosts and ancestral
spirits.

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 By contrast, Animism is the belief in inanimate,
personalized spirits or ghosts of ancestors that take an
interest in, and actively work to influence, human affairs
o The souls or spirits may inhabit the bodies of people
and animals as well as inanimate objects such as plants
or rocks.
o They may also be present in winds, rivers, or
mountains. The souls or spirits are unique beings with
feelings, motives, and a will of their own.
o Although they are powerful, they are not worshipped
as gods, and because of their humanlike qualities, they
can be manipulated—wheedled, frightened away, or
appeased—by using the proper magic rituals.
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 Theism
o Theism is the belief in divine beings—gods and
goddesses— who shape human affairs. Gods are seen
as powerful beings worthy of worship.
o Theism can be divided into two: Monotheism and
polytheism
 Monotheism: is the belief in the existence of a
single god. It is a belief in a single, supreme being or
god who is responsible for significant events such as the
creation of the world.
Only three religions are known to be monotheistic,
Judaism and its two offshoots, Christianity and Islam.
These three religions have the greatest number of
believers worldwide. 23
o Even these faiths are not purely monotheistic,
however. Some denominations of Christianity, for
example, include belief in such divine or semi-divine
beings as angels, the devil, saints, and the Virgin Mary.
oNevertheless, because all three religions contain such a
strong belief in the supremacy of one all-powerful
being, they are considered to be monotheistic.

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 Polytheism
o Most theistic societies practice polytheism, the belief
in more than one god (i.e. a number of gods).
oEach god or goddess usually has particular spheres of
influence such as childbirth, rain, or war, and generally
one is more powerful than the rest and oversees the
others’ activities.
o In the ancient religions of Mexico, Egypt, and Greece,
for instance, we find a pantheon, or a host, of gods and
goddesses.

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 Transcendent (Abstract) idealism
o It is nontheistic because it does not focus on worship
of a god or gods or a belief in supernatural forces,
spirits, or divine beings.
o Abstract ideals focus on the achievement of
personal awareness and a higher state of consciousness
through correct ways of thinking and behaving rather
than by manipulating spirits or worshipping gods.
 It is a belief in sacred principles of thought and
conduct.

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o Principles such as truth, justice, affirmation of life,
and tolerance for others are central tenets of
transcendent idealists, who seek an elevated state of
consciousness in which they can fulfill their true
potential.
o Such religions promote devotion to religious rituals
and practices and adherence to moral codes of
behavior.
o Buddhism is an example of a religion based on
abstract ideals.
o The Buddhist’s ideal is to become one with the
universe, not through worship or magic, but by
meditation and correct behavior. 27
 Sociological Perspectives on Religion
o According to the sociologist Meredith B. McGuire
(2002), religion as a social institution is a powerful,
deeply felt, and influential force in human society.
o Sociologists study the social institution of religion
because of the importance religion holds for many
people; they also want to know more about the
influence of religion on society, and vice versa.
o When sociologists approach the study of religion,
they focus on the relationship between religion and
society.
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 The major sociological perspectives have different
outlooks on the relationship between religion and
society.
o Functionalists typically emphasize the functions
religion plays in social life (e.g. binding people
together).
o Conflict explanations suggest that religion can be a
source of false consciousness in society (i.e. it can be
manipulated as a means for justifying the political
status quo).
o Symbolic interactionists focus on the meanings that
people give to religion in their everyday life.
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 Functionalist Perspectives on Religion
o Emile Durkheim was one of the first sociologists to
emphasize that religion is essential to the maintenance
of society.
o He suggested that religion is a cultural universal
found in all societies because it meets basic human
needs and serves important societal functions.
o Functionalists suggest that religion has three
important functions in any society:

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1. Meaning and purpose
o Religion offers meaning for the human experience.
o Some events create a profound sense of loss on both
an individual basis (such as injustice, suffering, and the
death of a loved one) and a group basis (such as famine,
earthquake, economic depression, or subjugation by an
enemy).
o Most religions offer explanations for these concerns.
o Explanations may differ from one religion to another,
yet each tells the individual or group that life is part of a
larger system of order in the universe.

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o Some (but not all) religions even offer hope of an
afterlife for persons who follow the religion’s tenets
of morality in this life.
o Such beliefs help make injustices in this life easier
to endure.
2. Social cohesion and a sense of belonging
o Religious beliefs and rituals are collective
representations group held meanings that express
something important about the group itself
o Religious teachings and practices, by emphasizing
shared symbolism, help promote social cohesion.

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 An example is the Christian ritual of Communion,
which not only commemorates a historical event but
also allows followers to participate in the unity
(“communion”) of themselves with other believers.
o All religions have some form of shared experiences
that rekindle the group’s consciousness of its own
unity.
o Not only does religion in itself bring about social
cohesion, but often, the hostility and prejudice directed
at its members by outsiders also helps strengthen bonds
between those members.

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3. Social control and support for the government
o All societies attempt to maintain social control
through systems of rewards and punishments.
o Sacred symbols and beliefs establish powerful,
pervasive, long-lasting motivations based on the
concept of a general order of existence.
o Religion also helps maintain social control in society
by conferring supernatural legitimacy on the norms
and laws of society.

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 Conflit Perspectives on Religion
o Conflict theorists view religion negatively.
o Karl Marx asserted that the dominant ideas of each
age have always been the ideas of the ruling class and
from this it was a small step to his assertion that the
dominant religion of a society is that of the ruling
class, an observation that has been borne out by historical
evidence.
o Marxist scholars emphasize religion’s role in justifying
the political status quo by cloaking political authority
with sacred legitimacy and thereby making opposition to
it seem immoral.
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o Marx saw religion as the tool that the upper classes used to
maintain control of society and to dominate the lower classes.
o In fact, he referred to it as the “opiate of the masses,”
believing that through religion, the masses were kept from
actions that might change their relationship with those in power.

o People become complacent because they have been taught to

believe in an afterlife in which they will be rewarded for their
suffering and misery in this life.
o If they followed the rules established by religion, they
expected to receive their reward in heaven, so they had no
reason to try to change or improve their condition in this world.

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o The lower classes were distracted from taking steps
toward social change by the promise of happiness
through religion.
oThese religious beliefs helped the ruling classes
exploit the lower classes; religion legitimized upper-
class power and authority.
o Although religion performs a number of vital
functions in society—helping maintain social cohesion
and control while satisfying the individual’s need for
emotional comfort, reassurance, and a worldview—it
also has negative, or dysfunctional, aspects.

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o Marx would be quick to point out a major dysfunction
of religion.
o Through its ability to make the existing social order
seem the only conceivable and acceptable way of life,
it obscures the fact that people construct society and
therefore can change society.
o Religion, by imposing acceptance of supernatural
causes of conditions and events, tends to conceal the
natural and human causes of social problems.

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o In fact, in this role of justifying or legitimating the
status quo, religion may very well hinders much-needed
changes in the social structure.
o By diverting attention from injustices in the existing
social order, religion discourages the individual from
taking steps to correct these conditions.
o In short, Marx believed that religion retarded social
change.
o An even more basic and subtle dysfunction of religion
is its insistence that only one body of knowledge and
only one way of thinking are sacred and correct, thereby
limiting independent thinking and the search for further
knowledge. 39
o Many feminists object to the patriarchal nature of
most religions; some advocate a break from traditional
religions, whereas others seek to reform religious
language, symbols, and rituals to eliminate the elements
of patriarchy.

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 Symbolic Interactionist Perspectives on Religion
o Thus far, we have been looking at religion primarily from
a macrolevel perspective.
o Symbolic interactionists focus their attention on a
microlevel analysis that examines the meanings that people
give to religion in their everyday life.
 Religion as a Reference Group
o For many people, religion serves as a reference group to
help them define themselves.
o For example, religious symbols have meaning for large
bodies of people. The crescent moon and star do have special
significance for Muslims and as the cross does for Christians.

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o Not all people interpret religion in the same way.
o Because of race, class, and gender, people may
experience it differently.
o In virtually all religions, women have much less
influence in establishing social definitions of
appropriate gender roles both within the religious
community and in the larger community.
o Thus, women and men may belong to the same
religious group, but their individual religion will not
necessarily be a carbon copy of the group’s entire
system of beliefs.

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 Types of Religious Organization
o Religious groups vary widely in their organizational
structure.
o Although some groups are large and somewhat
bureaucratically organized, others are small and have a
relatively informal authority structure.
o Some require total commitment from their members;
others expect members to have only a partial
commitment.

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oSociologists have developed typologies or ideal types
of religious organization to enable them to study a wide
variety of religious groups.
oThe most common categorization includes four types:
ecclesia, church, sect, and cult.

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 Ecclesia
o Ecclesia is a religious organization that is so
integrated into the dominant culture that it claims as
its membership all members of a society.
o Membership in the ecclesia occurs as a result of being
born into the society rather than by any conscious
decision on the part of individual members.
o The linkages between the social institutions of
religion and government are often very strong in
such societies.
o An ecclesia is usually the official or national
religion.
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o Ecclesias have been common throughout human
history.
o Although no true ecclesia exists in the contemporary
world, the Anglican church (the official church of
England), the Lutheran church in Sweden and Denmark,
the Catholic church in Spain, and Islam in Iran and
Pakistan come fairly close.

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 The Church–Sect Typology
o Unlike an ecclesia, a church is not considered to be a
state religion; however, it may still have a powerful
influence on political and economic arrangements in
society.
o A church is a large, bureaucratically organized
religious organization that tends to seek accommodation
with the larger society in order to maintain some degree
of control over it.
o Church membership is largely based on birth;
children of church members are typically baptized as
infants and become lifelong members of the church.
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o Older children and adults may choose to join the
church, but they are required to go through an extensive
training program that culminates in a ceremony similar
to the one that infants go through.
o Leadership is hierarchically arranged, and clergy
generally have many years of formal education.
o Churches have very restrained services that appeal to
the intellect rather than the emotions.
o Religious services are highly ritualized; they are led
by clergy who wear robes, enter and exit in a formal
processional, administer sacraments, and read services
from a prayer book or other standardized liturgical
format.
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 The Denomination
o Midway between the church and the sect is a
denomination—a large organized religion characterized
by accommodation to society but frequently lacking in
the ability or intention to dominate society.
oA denomination tends to limit its membership to a
particular class, ethnic group, or religious group or, at
least, to have its leadership positions dominated by
members of such a group.
o It has no official or unofficial connection with the
state.

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o Denominations do not withdraw themselves from the
secular society. Rather, they participate actively in
secular affairs while tending also to cooperate with
other religious groups.
oThese two characteristics distinguish them from sects,
which are separatist and unlikely to be tolerant of other
religious persuasions

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o Denominations have a trained ministry, and although
involvement by lay members is encouraged more than
in the church, their participation is usually limited to
particular activities, such as readings or prayers.
o Denominations tend to be more tolerant and less
likely than churches to expel or excommunicate
members.
o This form of organization is most likely to thrive in
societies characterized by religious pluralism—a
situation in which many religious groups exist because
they have a special appeal to specific segments of the
population.
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 The Sect
o A sect is a relatively small religious group that has
broken away from another religious organization to
renew what it views as the original version of the faith.
o It is a small group that adheres strictly to religious
doctrine and often claims that they are the authentic
version of the faith from which they split.
o Sects generally represent a withdrawal from secular
society and an active rejection of secular culture.

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o Unlike churches, sects offer members a more
personal religion and an intimate relationship with a
supreme being, depicted as taking an active interest in
the individual’s everyday life.
oWhereas churches use formalized prayers, often from
a prayer book, sects have informal prayers composed at
the time they are given.
oEarly in their development, sects often are so harsh in
their rejection of society that they invite persecution.

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 Cults
o A cult is a religious group with practices and
teachings outside the dominant cultural and religious
traditions of a society.
o Although many people view cults negatively, some
major religions (including Judaism, Islam, and
Christianity) and some denominations (such as the
Mormons) started as cults.
o Cult leadership is based on charismatic characteristics
of the individual, including an unusual ability to form
attachments with other people.

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 A Reading Assignment
 Secularism,
 Ecumenism

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