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 ABOUT ME

ANIRUDH MALIK
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Topics in the chapter:
 India's Location
 Its Size
 India and the World
 Its neighbours
Introduction: India is one of the oldest civilisations and have a
remarkable history. After Independence from British rule, it
achieved multifaceted socio-economic progress. Also made a
remarkable progress in the field of agriculture, industry,
technology and overall economic development
India's Location

 Lies entirely in Northern hemisphere

between latitudes 8°4' N and 37°6' N and
longitudes 68°7' E and 97°25' E.
 Divided by Tropic of cancer (23°30' N) in
almost two equal parts.
 In Southeast, Andaman and Nicobar islands
lie in Bay of Bengal.
 In Southwest, Lakshadweep islands lie in
Arabian Sea.
Its Size

 Total Area of India is 3.28 million square km which is

2.4 percent of the total area of the world.
 It is seventh largest country in the world in terms of
landmass.
 It has land boundary of about 15,200 km and the
total length of the coast line of the mainland including
Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep islands is
7,516.6 km.
 In the northwest, north and north east of India,
young folds mountains bounds it.
 South of about 22° north latitude, India narrows
and finally extends towards the Indian Ocean. It also
divides it into two seas, the Arabian Send on the west
and the Bay of Bengal on its east.
 The latitudinal and longitudinal extent of the
mainland is about 30°.
 India's east-west extent appears to be smaller than
the north-south extent.
 The time along the Standard Meridian
(82°30' E). passing through Mirzapur in UP is
taken as the Indian Standard Time for whole
country.
 The time gap between Arunachal Pradesh
present in the east and Gujarat present in the
west is about 2 hours. The latitudinal extent
influences the duration of day and night, as one
moves from south to north.
India and the World
 India is located in the centre of the World between East
and the West Asia.
 The routes across the Indian ocean which connect the
countries of Europe in the West and the countries of East
Asia provide a strategic central location to India.
 The Deccan Peninsula helps India to establish close
contact with West Asia, Africa and Europe from the western
coast and with Southeast and East Asia from the eastern
coast.
 The Ocean which is south of India given name Indian
Ocean as no other country has a long coastline on the Indian
Ocean as India has.
 The land routes of India are much older than sea
route. Various passes across mountains in the north
have provided passages to the ancient travellers as
ocean limited such interaction for a long time.
 The land routes helped India in the exchange of
ideas and commodities since ancient times.
 India have propagated the ideas of the Upanishads
and the Ramayana, the stories of Panchtantra, the
Indian numerals and the decimal system as well as
given spices, muslin and other merchandise to
different countries.
 Also, the influence of Greek sculpture, and the
architectural styles of dome and minarets from West
Asia can be seen in different parts of India.
Its neighbours
 India is comprised of 29 states and 7 union territories and
shares its land boundary with:
 Northwest: Pakistan and Afghanistan
 North: China, Nepal, Bhutan
 East: Myanmar and Bangladesh
 South: Sri Lanka and Maldives
 Sri Lanka is separated from India by a narrow channel of
sea formed by the Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar
 Maldives Islands are situated to the south of the
Lakshadweep Islands.
 A peninsula is a piece of land that is bordered by water on
three sides but connected to mainland on one side.
 The southernmost point of the Indian Union'Indira Point'
got submerged under the sea water in 2004 during the
Tsunami.
 Since the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, India's
distance from Europe has been reduced by 7,000 km.
 Before 1947, there were two types of states in India - the
provinces and the Princely states.
 Provinces were ruled directly by British officials who were
appointed by the Viceroy.
 Princely states were ruled by local, hereditary rulers, who
acknowledged sovereignity in return for local autonomy.
Indian physical features

India has all major physical features of the

earth, i.e., mountains, plains, deserts,
plateaus and islands. The land of India displays
great physical variation. Geologically, the
Peninsular Plateau constitutes one of the
ancient land masses on the earth's surface.
The Himalayas and the Northern Plains are the
most recent landforms. The northern plains
are formed of alluvial soil
Major Physiographic Divisions
The physical features of India are grouped
under the following physiographic divisions:
1) The Himalayan Mountains
2) The Northern Plains
3) The Peninsular Plateau
4) The Indian Desert
5) The Coastal Plains
6) The Islands
The Himalayan Mountains
Himalayan mountains are stretched over the
northern borders of India. These mountain ranges
run in a west-east direction from the Indus to the
Brahmaputra. The Himalaya consists of 3 parallel
ranges in its longitudinal extent.
1) The northern-most range is known as the Great
or Inner Himalayas or the Himadri. It is the most
continuous range consisting of the loftiest peaks
with an average height of 6,000 metres.
2) The folds of the Great Himalayas are
asymmetrical in nature. The core of this part of
Himalayas is composed of granite.
3) The range lying to the south of the Himadri forms the
most rugged mountain system and is known as
Himachal or lesser Himalaya.
4) Pir Panjal range forms the longest and the most
important range.
5) The outermost range of the Himalayas is called the
Shiwaliks. These ranges are composed of
unconsolidated sediments.
6) The longitudinal valley lying between lesser Himalaya
and the Shiwaliks are known as Duns. Dehradun, Kotli
Dun and Patli Dun are some of the wellknown Duns.
The Himalayas have also been divided on the basis of regions
from west to east.
1. The part of Himalayas lying between Indus and Satluj has
been traditionally known as Punjab Himalaya but it is also
known regionally as Kashmir and Himachal Himalaya from
west to east respectively.
2. The part of the Himalayas lying between Satluj and Kali
rivers is known as Kumaon Himalayas.
3. The Kali and Teesta rivers divide the Nepal Himalayas and
the part lying between Teesta and Dihang rivers is known
as Assam Himalayas.
4. The Brahmaputra marks the eastern most
boundary of the Himalayas.
5. Beyond the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas bend
sharply to the south and spread along the eastern
boundary of India, which is known as the Purvachal
or the Eastern hills and mountains. The Purvachal
comprises the Patkai hills, the Naga hills, the
Manipur hills and the Mizo hills.
The Northern Plain

The northern plain has been formed by the interplay of the 3 major river
systems - the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra along with their
tributaries. It spreads over an area of 7 lakh sq. km.
The Northern Plain is broadly divided into 3 sections as mentioned below:
1. The Western part of the Northern Plain is referred to as the Punjab
Plains. This plain is formed by the Indus and its tributaries - the
Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj.
2. The Ganga plain extends between Ghaggar and Teesta rivers. It is
spread over the states of North India, Haryana, Delhi, U.P., Bihar, partly
Jharkhand and West Bengal.
3. Brahmaputra plain lies in the state of Assam.
According to the variations in elevation points, the Northern
plains can be divided into 4 regions.
1. The rivers, after descending from the mountains,
deposit pebbles in a narrow belt of about 8 to 16 km in
width lying parallel to the slopes of the Shiwaliks, which
is known as bhabar. All the streams disappear in this
bhabar belt.
2. The streams and rivers re-emerge and create a wet,
swampy and marshy region known as terai.
3. The largest part of the northern plain is formed
of older alluvium. It lies above the floodplains of
the rivers and presents a terrace like feature
which is known as bhangar.
4. The soil in the bhangar region contains calcareous
deposits and is known as kankar. The newer,
younger deposits of the floodplains are called
khadar.
The Peninsular Plateau
The Peninsular plateau is a tableland composed of the old
crystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks. It was formed
due to the breaking and drifting of the Gondwana land. One
of the distinct features of the Peninsular plateau is the black
soil area known as Deccan Trap.
This plateau consists of 2 divisions:
1. The Central Highlands: The part of the Peninsular plateau
lying to the north of the Narmada river, covering a major
area of the Malawi plateau, is known as the Central
Highlands. The eastward extensions of this plateau are
locally known as the Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand.
2. The Deccan Plateau: It is a triangular landmass that lies to
the south of the river Narmada. An extension of the
Plateau is also visible in the northeast which is known as
the Meghalaya, Karbi-Anglong Plateau and North Cachar
Hills.
The western Ghats and eastern Ghats mark the western
and the eastern edges of the Deccan plateau respectively
Western Ghats Eastern Ghats

Western Ghats lie parallel to the The eastern Ghats stretch from the
western coast Mahanadi valley to the nigiris in the
south.

They are continuous and can be They are discontinuous and irregular.
crossed through passes only. They can be dissected by rivers
draining into the Bay of Bengal.

They are higher than the eastern Their average elevation is 600 meters.
Ghats. Their average elevation is 900-
1600 meters.

Anamudi is the highest peak in Mahendragiri (1,501 meters) is the

eastern Ghats. highest peak in the eastern Ghats.
The Indian Desert
The Indian desert lies towards the western margins
of the Aravali Hills.
It is a sandy plain covered with sand dunes.
This region receives very low rainfall below 150
mm per year.
It has a dry climate with low vegetation cover.
The Coastal Plains

A coastal plain is a flat, low-lying piece of land next to the

ocean. To the east and west of the peninsular plateau, 2
narrow strips of plain lands are found, which are
respectively called Eastern Coastal Plain and Western
Coastal Plain.

Eastern Coastal Plain

The Eastern Coastal Plains is a wide stretch of the landmass
lying between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. In
the northern part, it is referred to as the Northern Circar,
while the southern part is known as the coromandel Coast.
Large rivers, such as he Mahanadi the Godavari, the
Krishna and the Kaveri have formed extensive delta on this
coast. Lake Chilika is an important feature along the
eastern coast.
Western Coastal Plain
The western coast is sandwiched between the Western Ghats
and the Arabian Sea. It is a narrow plain and consists of 3
sections as mentioned below:
 The northern part of the coast is called the Konkan (Mumbai
- Goa)
The central stretch is called the Kannad Plain
The southern stretch is referred to as the Malabar coast
The Islands
An island is a piece of sub-continental land that is
surrounded by water. Lakshadweep Islands group is
composed of small coral islands which were earlier
known as Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindive.
The entire group of islands is divided into 2 broad
categories:
1. The Andaman in the north
2. The Nicobar in the south
These islands lie close to the equator and experience
equatorial climate and have thick forest cover.
The diverse physical features of India have immense
future possibilities of development because of the
following reasons.
 The mountains are the major sources of water
and forest wealth.
 The northern plains are the granaries of the
country. They provide the base for early
civilisations.
 The plateau is a storehouse of minerals, which
has played a crucial role in the industrialisation of
India.
 The coastal region and island groups provide sites
for fishing and port activities.
Climate refers to the sum total of weather conditions and
variations over a large area for a long period of time (more
than thirty years).

Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere over an

area at any point of time.
The elements of weather and climate are the same, i.e.
temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, humidity and
precipitation.
On the basis of the monthly atmospheric conditions, the year
is divided into seasons such as:
 Winter
 Summer
 Rainy Seasons
Climatic Controls
The climate of any place depends on the following
factors:
1) Latitude The amount of solar energy received
varies according to latitude due to the curvature of
the earth. That's why air temperature generally
decreases from the equator towards the poles.
2) Altitude The atmosphere becomes less dense and
temperature decreases when we go to the higher
altitude from the earth surface. This is the reason
why hills are cooler during summers.
3) Pressure and wind system The pressure and
wind system of any area depends on the latitude and
altitude of the place. It influences the temperature
and rainfall pattern.
4) Distance from the sea The sea exerts a
moderating influence on the climate. As the
distance from the sea increases, its moderating
influence decreases and people experience
extreme weather conditions. This condition is
known as continentality i.e. very hot during
summers and very cold during winters.
5) Ocean currents Ocean currents along with
onshore winds affect the climate of the coastal
areas. For example, any coastal area with
warm or cold currents flowing past it, will be
warmed or cooled if the winds are onshore.
6) Relief features Relief plays a major role in
determining the climate of a place. High
mountains act as barriers for cold or hot winds.
They may also cause precipitation if they are
high enough and lie in the path of rain-bearing
winds. Precipitation is any form of moisture
which falls to the earth. It includes rain, snow,
hail and sleet.
Factors Affecting India's Climate

Latitude
The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of
the country from the Rann of kachchh in the west to
Mizoram in the east. India's climate has
characteristics of tropical as well as subtropical
climates.

Altitude
India has mountains to the north and also has a vast
coastal area where the maximum elevation is about
30 metres. Owing to the mountains, subcontinent
experiences comparatively milder winters as
compared to central Asia.
Pressure and Winds
The climate and weather conditions in India are governed by
the following atmospheric conditions:
 Pressure and surface winds
 Upper air circulation
 Western cyclonic disturbances and tropical cyclones
Air moves from the high-pressure area over the southern
Indian Ocean, in a south-easterly direction, crosses the
equator and turns right towards the low-pressure areas
over the Indian subcontinent. These are known as the
Southwest Monsoon winds. These winds blow over the
warm oceans, gather moisture and bring widespread rainfall
over the territories of India.
Jet System
 These are the high altitude winds in the atmosphere.
Their speed varies from 110 km/hr in summer and
184 km/hr in winter.
 They have located over 27°-30° North Latitude
(Westly) Jetstream
 Easterly Jetstream blows over India over 14°N
Latitude.
The Indian Monsoon
The climate of India is strongly influenced by monsoon winds. The
seasonal reversal of the wind system is known as “monsoon”. The
monsoons are experienced in the tropical area roughly between
20° N and 20° S. Go through the following facts to understand the
mechanism of the monsoons in a better way:
1. The differential heating and cooling of land and water creates
low pressure on the landmass of India while the seas around
experience comparatively high pressure.
2. The shift of the position of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ) in summer, over the Ganga plain, is also known as the
monsoon-trough during the monsoon season.
3. The presence of the high-pressure area, east of Madagascar,
approximately at 20°S over the Indian Ocean affects the
Indian Monsoon.
4. The Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated during summer,
which results in strong vertical air currents and the formation
of low pressure over the plateau at about 9 km above sea
level.
5. The movement of the westerly jet stream to the north of the
Himalayas and the presence of the tropical easterly jet stream
over the Indian peninsula during summer also impact the
Indian Monsoon.
The changes in the pressure conditions over the southern
oceans also affect the monsoons. The irregularly periodic variation
in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern
Pacific Ocean that affects the climate of the tropics and subtropics
is known as Southern Oscillation or SO.
The Onset of the Monsoon and Withdrawal
The duration of the monsoon is between 100-120 days
from early June to mid-September. Around the time of its
arrival, the normal rainfall increases suddenly and
continues constantly for several days, which s known as the
"burst” of the monsoon.
Arrival of the Monsoon in different parts of India
The monsoon arrives at the southern tip of the Indian
peninsula generally by the 1st week of June. Subsequently,
it proceeds into two – the Arabian Sea branch and the Bay
of Bengal branch.
 The Arabian Sea branch reaches Mumbai on approximately the
10th of June.
 The Bay of Bengal branch arrives in Assam in the 1st week of
June.
 By mid-June, the Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon arrives
over Saurashtra-Kuchchh and the central part of the country.
 The Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal branches of the monsoon
merge over the north-western part of the Ganga plains.
 Delhi receives the monsoon showers from the Bay of Bengal
branch by the end of June.
 By the first week of July, western Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana
and eastern Rajasthan experience the monsoon.
 By mid-July, the monsoon reaches Himachal Pradesh and the rest
of the country.
Withdrawal of the Monsoon

The withdrawal of the monsoon begins in north-western

states of India by early September. By mid-October, it
withdraws completely from the northern half of the
peninsula. From north to the south, withdrawal of monsoon
takes place from the first week of December to the first week
of January. By early December, the monsoon has withdrawn
from the rest of the country.
 The Seasons
4 main seasons can be identified in India:
1. The cold weather season (Winter)
2. The hot weather season (Summer)
3. The advancing monsoon (Rainy Season)
4. The retreating monsoon with some regional variations (Transition
Season)
Let's discuss each of them in detail:
The Cold Weather Season (Winter) Winter begins from mid-November in
northern India and stays till February
 December and January are the coldest months in the northern part of
India.
 The temperature decreases from south to the north.
 Days are warm and nights are cold.
 The weather is marked by clear sky, low temperatures and low
humidity and feeble, variable winds.
 This season is extremely important for the cultivation of ‘rabbi' crops.
The Hot Weather Season (Summer)
From March to May, hot weather season is observed in
India. The summer months experience rising temperature
and falling air pressure in the northern part of the country.
A striking feature of the hot weather season is the 'loo'. Loo
is the strong, gusty, hot, dry winds blowing during the day
over the north and north-western India.
Towards the close of the summer season, pre-monsoon
showers come which help in the early
opening of mangoes, and are often referred to as 'mango
showers'.
Advancing Monsoon (The Rainy Season)

South-east trade winds originate over the warm

subtropical areas of the southern oceans. They
cross the equator and blow in a south-westerly
direction entering the Indian peninsula as the
south-west monsoon. The monsoon winds cover
the country in about a month. Mawsynram in the
southern ranges of the Khaki Hills receives the
highest average rainfall in the world.
A phenomenon associated with the monsoon is its
tendency to have 'breaks' in rainfall. These breaks in
monsoon are related to the movement of the monsoon
trough. The trough and its axis keep on moving
northward or southward and determine the spatial
distribution of rainfall.
The frequency and intensity of tropical depressions also
determine the amount and duration of monsoon rains.
The monsoon is known for its uncertainties. The
alternation of dry and wet spells vary in intensity,
frequency and duration.
Retreating/Post Monsoons (The Transition Season)
The months of October-November form a period of
transition from hot rainy season to dry winter
conditions. The retreat of the monsoon is marked by
clear skies and rise in temperature. While day
temperatures are high, nights are cool and pleasant.
Owing to the conditions of high temperature and
humidity, the weather becomes rather oppressive
during the day. This is commonly known as ‘October
heat'. In the second half of October, the mercury
begins to fall rapidly in northern India.
Distribution of Rainfall
1. Parts of the western coast and north-eastern India
receive over about 400 cm of rainfall annually.
2. Rainfall is less than 60 cm in western Rajasthan and
adjoining parts of Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab.
3. Rainfall is low in the interior of the Deccan plateau, and
east of the Sahyadris.
4. Snowfall is restricted to the Himalayan region.
5. The annual rainfall is highly variable from year to year.
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1. KARAKORAM RANGE :
A Trans- Himalayan mountain starts from the Pamir
Knot
Heavily glaciated part of the world outside the polar
regions
K2-Second highest peak of the world
Glaciers – Siachen, Biafo, Batloro, Batura

2. LADAKH RANGE :

Trans-Himalayan mountain located between Shyok and

Indus rivers
Leh is located at its southern edge
Runs parallel to the Indus River from the Shyok River in
the west to the Tibet border in the east
Khardung La Pass is located on it
3. ZASKAR RANGE :
Trans-Himalayan or Tibetan Himalayan range located
between the Great Himalayas and the Ladakh Range
Branches off from the Great Himalayas near 80º E
longitude runs parallel to the latter
Nanga Parbat forms its culmination in the northwest
Coldest place of India, Dras is located here

4. PIR PANJAL :

Westernmost range of the Lesser Himalayas which

separates Jammu from Kashmir
Extends from the Jhelam River to the upper Beas River
for 300- 400km.
Pir Panjal and Banihal passes are located in it
Jawahar Tunnel passes through the Banihal Pass
5. ABU HILLS :
The southwestern part of the Aravalli Range, between
the Sabarmati and the Banas Rivers
Mount Abu is located on it

6. ARAVALLI RANGE :

Old dissected mountains of northwestern India, from

Gujarat to Haryana
Source of Banas, Luni and Sabarmati rivers
Rich in non- ferrous minerals
Highest peak – Guru Shikhar
7. MAIKAL HILLS :
Eastern part of the Satpura Range, located between
Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh
Source of many tributaries of Narmada, Mahanadi and
Godavari
Inhabited by the tribal peoples like Baiga and Gond
Kanha National Park, Achanakmar-Amarkantak
Biosphere Reserve.

8. KAIMUR RANGE :

Eastern range of the Vindhyas located between the Son

and the Tons rivers in northeastern Madhya Pradesh
Its northern edge forms escarpments
Prehistoric rock paintings have been discovered
9. AJANTA RANGE :

A mountain of Maharashtra entirely within the state

Forms the watershed between the Godavari and the
Tapi river systems
Source of Purna and Penganga
Ajanta Caves are located

10. MAHADEO HILLS :

Central part of the Satpura Range in southern Madhya

Pradesh
Watershed between Narmada and Godavari
Highest Peak – Dhupgarh
Origin of the Tapi River
11. GARO
Westernmost part of the Meghalaya Plateau
Inhabited by the Garo tribes
Nokrek Biosphere Reserve
Tura is the main city in the region
Highest peak- Nokrek

12. KHASI

Middle part of the Meghalaya Plateau

Highest point of the Meghalaya Plateau
Cherrapunjee and Mawsynram are located in it
Shillong is located in the hill
Inhabited by the matrilineal Khasi trib
13. JAYANTIYA :
Eastern part of the Meghalaya Plateau
Inhabited by the Jatantiya tribes
Jhuming cultivation is practised
High rainfall region
Presence of the laterite soils

14. PATKAI BUM :

Northernmost range of the Purvanchal, located in

Arunachal Pradesh
Forms boundary between India and Myanmar
Source of Burhi Dihing and Disang rivers
15. MIKIR :
Part of the Meghalaya Plateau located in Assam, just
south of the Brahmaputra River
Mikir tribes live here who practise Jhuming cultivation
Hills consist of the Archaean rocks

16. DAFLA

Part of the Siwalik located in Arunachal Pradesh

between the Subansiri River and the Kameng River,
that to the south of the Kamla River
Tribes living here practice Jhuming
Covered with dense bamboo, pine and deodar trees.
17. MIRI
Part of the Outer Himalayas (Siwalik) in Arunachal
Pradesh located between the Subansiri River and the
Kameng River that to the north of the Kamla River
which separates it forms the Dafla Hills.
Inhabited by tribes.
Terraces are built for the cultivation.

18. ABOR

Part of the Siwalik,located in Arunachal Pradesh

between the Dibang and the Subansiri river
Covered with deciduous and evergreen forests
Inhabited by the tribal peoples
Highest peak is 3992 m above sea level.
19. BALAGHAT RANGE :

Series of hills in western Maharashtra originates from

the Western Ghats
Extends for 200 miles to form border between
Maharashtra and Karnataka
Flat topped hills with lava covers
Source of Manjra River
Rainier west has dense vegetation but the eastern part
is barren and stony
20. HARISHCHANDRA RANGE :
Eastward spur of the Western Ghats, in Maharashtra
Average elevation -600m.
Elevation gradually decreases towards the southeast
Flat topped, consisting of basaltic lava
Slops are eroded into terraces
Named after Harishchandragarh, its highest peak
Ahmednagar is the chief city in the region
21. NILGIRI HILLS :
Trijunction of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka, north
of the Palghat
Meeting point of the Eastern and Western ghats
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and other conservation areas
Highest peak – Doddabetta, 4 km from Otty
So many falls Pykara, Catherine, Kotagiri

22. BABA BUDAN HILLS :

Part of the Western Ghats in the Chikamangaluru

District of Karnataka
Highest peak- Mullayangiri
Baba Budan was a 17th century sufi, who is believed to
have introduced coffee in India
Known for coffee cultivation
23. BALAGHAT RANGE :

Series of hills in western Maharashtra originates from

the Western Ghats
Extends for 200 miles to form border between
Maharashtra and Karnataka
Flat topped hills with lava covers
Source of Manjra River
Rainier west has dense vegetation but the eastern part
is barren and stony
24. SHEVROY HILLS :
Between Vellar and Ponnaiyar rivers in Tamil Nadu
Around Salem city
Sanatorium and several old coffee plantations
Tourist attraction
Source of Turunanimuttai, Vellar, Gomukha and
Manimukta rivers

25. JAVADI HILLS :

Northern Tamil Nadu in Vellar district

Between Ponnaiyar and Palar rivers
Bisected into eastern and western sections by Cheyyar and Agaram,
tributaries of the Palar
Sparsely populated
Grains, legumes, oilseeds are chief crops
26. PALANI HILLS :
Mountains of Tamil Nadu east of the Anaimudi Peak
North of Vaigai River
Mostly within Dindigul district
Hill station of Kodaikanal
Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park

27. ANAIMALAI HILLS :

Anaimalai means ‘Elephant Hills’
Located between Kerala and Tamil Nadu, south of the
Palghat Gap
Highest peak -Anaimudi (Idukki district, Kerala )
Many sanctuaries and parks
Trekking destination
Tea, coffee, rubber and teak forests
28. CARDAMOM HILLS :

• Southernmost part of the Western Ghats, in Kerala and

Tamil Nadu
• Named after the cardamoms which are grown here,
beside pepper and coffee
• Has the Shencottah Gap
• Climatic barrier, source of many rivers
• So many forest reserves for ecological conservation,
source of HEPs
Drainage system in india
The Indian river are divided into two major groups:
The Himalayan rivers
The peninsular rivers
The Himalayan rivers The Peninsular river

Most of the Himalayan rivers are Peninsular rivers are seasonal.

perennial which means they have
water throughout the year.

These rivers receive water from rain as The flow of these rivers is
well as from melted snow from high dependent on rainfall.
mountains.

Two major Himalayan rivers, the Indus Most of the rivers of peninsular India
and the Brahmaputra originate from originate in the Western Ghats and
the north of the mountain ranges. flow towards the Bay of Bengal.

The Himalayan rivers have long These rivers have shorter and
courses from their source to the sea. shallower courses as compared to
Himalayan rivers.
Himalayan Drainage:

Many of the Himalayan Rivers existed even before the Himalayas ranges were
uplifted.
These rivers originated in the Tibet beyond the Himalayas. The Himalayan
drainage system has evolved through a long geological history.
It mainly includes the Ganga, the Indus and the Brahmaputra river basins.
These rivers have caused deep gorges for example gorges of Indus, Satluj,
Alakhnanda, Gandak, Kosi etc. which indicate that these rivers are older than
mountain themselves, hence  antecedent
Evolution of Himalayan Drainage system:

There was a mighty river called Shiwalik or Indo-Brahma traversed the

entire longitudinal extent of the Himalaya from Assam to Punjab and
onwards to Sind, and finally discharged into the Gulf of Sind near lower
Punjab during the Miocene period some million years ago.
The remarkable continuity of the Shiwalik and its lacustrine origin and
alluvial deposits consisting of sands, silt, clay, boulders and conglomerates
support this viewpoint.
Himalayan rivers later got dismembered into three major systems.
This dismembered was probably due to the Pleistocene
upheaval in the western Himalayas, including the uplift of the
Potwar Plateau (Delhi Ridge), which acted as the water divide
between the Indus and Ganga drainage systems.
Likewise, the down-thrusting of the Malda gap (Garo- Rajmahal
Gap) area between the Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateau
during the mid-Pleistocene period, diverted the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra systems to flow towards the Bay of Bengal.
River characteristics:
Since these are fed both by melting of snow and precipitation, rivers of
this system are perennial.
These rivers pass through the giant gorges carved out by the erosion
activity carried on simultaneously with the uplift of the Himalayas.
Besides deep gorges, these rivers also form V-shaped valleys, rapids
and waterfalls in their mountainous course.
While entering the plains, they form depositional features like flat
valleys, ox-bow lakes, floodplains, braided channels, and deltas near the
river mouth.
In the Himalayan reaches, the course of these rivers is highly tortuous,
but over the plains, they display a strong meandering tendency and shift
their courses frequently.
River System of the Himalayan Drainage:

1.The Indus river system:

It is one of the largest river basins of the world, covering an area of 11,65,000 sq.
km (in India it is 321, 289 sq. km) and a total length of 2,880 km (in India 1,114 km).
The Indus also was known as the Sindhu, is the westernmost of the Himalayan
rivers in India.
It originates from a glacier near Bokhara Chu (31°15′ N latitude and 81°40′ E
longitude) in the Tibetan region at an altitude of 4,164 m in the Kailash Mountain
range.
In Tibet, it is known as ‘Singi Khamban; or Lion’s mouth. After flowing in the
northwest direction between the Ladakh and Zanskar ranges, it passes through
Ladakh and Baltistan.
It cuts across the Ladakh range, forming a spectacular gorge near Gilgit in Jammu
and Kashmir.
It enters into Pakistan near Chillar in the Dardistan region.
The Indus receives a number of Himalayan tributaries such as the Shyok, the Gilgit,
the Zaskar, the Hunza, the Nubra, the Shigar, the Gasting and the Dras.
It finally emerges out of the hills near Attock where it receives the Kabul river on its
right bank.
The other important tributaries joining the right bank of the Indus are the Khurram,
the Tochi, the Gomal, and the Sangar. They all originate in the Sulaiman ranges.
The Indus River flows southward and receives ‘Panjnad’ (five rivers) a little above
Mithankot in Pakistan.
The Panjnad is the name given to the five rivers of Punjab, namely the Satluj, the
Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the Jhelum.
It finally discharges into the Arabian Sea, east of Karachi.
Under Indus water Treaty of 1960 between India and Pakistan, 3 western rivers-
Indus, Jhelum and Chenab is allotted to Pakistan
while 3 eastern rivers Satluj, Ravi and Beas are allotted to India for full utilisation.
India can use 20% of the total water of western rivers only.
Jhelum River:

The Jhelum rises from a spring at Verinag situated at the foot of

the Pir Panjal in the south-eastern part of the valley of Kashmir.

It flows through Srinagar and the Wular lake before entering

Pakistan through a deep narrow gorge. It joins the Chenab near
Jhang in Pakistan.
 Chenab River:

The Chenab is the largest tributary of the Indus. It is formed by two streams,
the Chandra and the Bhaga, which join at Tandi near Keylong in Himachal
Pradesh.
Hence, it is also known as Chandrabhaga. The river flows for 1,180 km before
entering into Pakistan.

Ravi River:
The Ravi is another important tributary of the Indus. It rises west of the Rohtang
pass in the Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh and flows through the Chamba valley
of the state.
Before entering Pakistan and joining the Chenab near Sarai Sidhu, it drains the
area lying between the southeastern part of the Pir Panjal and the Dhauladhar
ranges.
 Beas River:
The Beas is another important tributary of the Indus, originating from the Beas Kund
near the Rohtang Pass at an elevation of 4,000 m above the mean sea level.
The river flows through the Kullu valley and forms gorges at Kati and Largi in the
Dhaoladhar range.
It enters the Punjab plains where it meets the Satluj near Harike.

Sutlej River:

The Sutlej originates in the Rakas lake near Mansarovar at an altitude of 4,555 m in Tibet
where it is known as Langchen Khambab.
It flows almost parallel to the Indus for about 400 km before entering India and comes out of
a gorge at Rupar.
It passes through the Shipki La on the Himalayan ranges and enters the Punjab plains. It is an
antecedent river.
It is a very important tributary as it feeds the canal system of the Bhakra Nangal project.
 2.The Ganga River System:

The Ganga river system is the largest in India has a number of perennial and non-
perennial rivers originating in the Himalayas in the north and the Peninsula in the south,
respectively.

Ganga River:

The Ganga is the most important river of India both from the point of view of its basin and
cultural significance.
It rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m) in the Uttarkashi district of
Uttarakhand. Here, it is known as the Bhagirathi.
It cuts through the Central and the Lesser Himalayas in narrow gorges.
At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi meets the Alaknanda; hereafter, it is known as the Ganga.
The Ganga enters the plains at Haridwar.
From here, it flows first to the south, then to the south-east and east before splitting into
two distributaries, namely the Bhagirathi and the Hugli
The important left-bank tributaries are the Ramganga, the Gomati, the
Ghaghara, the Gandak, the Kosi and the Mahananda.
Important right bank tributaries are the Yamuna, Son, Damodar etc.
The river has a length of 2,525 km. The Ganga basin covers about 8.6 lakh sq.
km area in India alone.
In Bangladesh, later it is known as the Padma. Padma river is later on known
as Meghana when it meets Jamuna (Brahmaputra river), which along with
Hoogly river makes the world’s largest Delta is known as Sunderban while
emptying into Bay of Bengal located both in West Bengal of India and
Bangladesh.
Alaknanda River:
The Alaknanda has its source in the Satopanth glacier above Badrinath.
The Alaknanda consists of the Dhauli and the Vishnu Ganga which meet at Joshimath
or Vishnu Prayag.
The other tributaries of Alaknanda such as the Pindar join it at Karna Prayag while
Mandakini or Kali Ganga meets it at Rudra Prayag.

Yamuna River:

The Yamuna, the westernmost and the longest tributary of the Ganga, has its source in
the Yamunotri glacier on the western slopes of Banderpunch range (6,316 km).
It joins the Ganga at Prayag (Allahabad). It is joined by the Chambal, the Sind, the
Betwa and the Ken on its right bank which originates from the Peninsular plateau while
the Hindan, the Rind, the Sengar, the Varuna, etc. join it on its left bank.
Much of its water feeds the western and eastern Yamuna and the Agra canals for
irrigation purposes.
Ramganga River

The Ramganga is comparatively a small river rising in the Garhwal hills near
Gairsain.
It changes its course to the southwest direction after crossing the Shiwalik and
enters into the plains of Uttar Pradesh near Najibabad.
Finally, it joins the Ganga near Kannauj.

Gandak River:

The Gandak comprises two streams, namely Kaligandak and Trishulganga.

It rises in the Nepal Himalayas between the Dhaulagiri and Mount Everest and drains
the central part of Nepal.
It enters the Ganga plain in Champaran district of Bihar and joins the Ganga at Sonpur
near Patna.
Ghaghra River:

The Ghaghara originates in the glaciers of Mapchachungo.

After collecting the waters of its tributaries – Tila, Seti and Beri, it comes out of
the mountain, cutting a deep gorge at Shishapani.
The river Sarda (Kali or Kali Ganga) joins it in the plain before it finally meets
the Ganga at Chhapra.

Sarda River:

The Sarda or Saryu river rises in the Milam glacier in the Nepal Himalayas where
it is known as the Goriganga.
Along the Indo-Nepal border, it is called Kali or Chauk, where it joins the
Ghaghara.
 Kosi River:

The Kosi is an antecedent river with its source to the north of Mount Everest in
Tibet, where its mainstream Arun rises.
After crossing the Central Himalayas in Nepal, it is joined by the Son Kosi from
the West and the Tamur Kosi from the east.
It forms Sapt Kosi after uniting with the River Arun. River Kosi, also known as
the ‘sorrow of Bihar’, has been notorious for frequently changing its course.
The Kosi brings the huge quantity of sediments from its upper reaches and
deposits it in the plains. The course gets blocked, and consequently, the river
changes its course.
 Mahananda River

The Mahananda is another important tributary of the Ganga rising in the

Darjiling hills.
It joins the Ganga as its last left bank tributary in West Bengal.

Son River

The Son is its major right bank tributary. The Son is a large south bank tributary of the
Ganga, originating in the Amarkantak plateau.
After forming a series of waterfalls at the edge of the Rohtas plateau, it reaches Arrah,
west of Patna, to join the Ganga.
 Chambal River:

The Chambal rises near Mhow in the Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh and
flows northwards through a gorge upwards of Kota in Rajasthan, where the
Gandhisagar dam has been constructed.
From Kota, it traverses down to Bundi, Sawai Madhopur and Dholpur, and
finally joins the Yamuna. The Chambal is famous for its badland topography
called the Chambal ravines.

Damodar River

The Damodar occupies the eastern margins of the Chotanagpur Plateau where it flows
through a rift valley and finally joins the Hugli.
The Barakar is its main tributary.
Once known as the ‘sorrow of Bengal’, the Damodar has been now tamed by the
Damodar Valley Corporation(DVC), a multipurpose project.
 3.The Brahmaputra River system:

The Brahmaputra, one of the largest rivers of the world, has its origin in the
Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash range near the Mansarovar lake.
From here, it traverses eastward longitudinally for a distance of nearly 1,200 km
in a dry and flat region of southern Tibet, where it is known as the Tsangpo, which
means ‘the purifier.’
The Rango Tsangpo is the major right-bank tributary of this river in Tibet.
It emerges as a turbulent and dynamic river after carving out a deep gorge in the
Central Himalayas near Namcha Barwa (7,755 m), enters into India taking a ‘great
bend’.
The Tsangpo river emerges from the foothills under the name of Siang or
Dihang. It enters India west of Sadiya town in Arunachal Pradesh.
Flowing southwest, it receives its main left-bank tributaries, viz., Dibang or
Sikang and Lohit; thereafter, it is known as the Brahmaputra.
The Brahmaputra receives numerous tributaries in its 750 km long journey
through the Assam valley.
Its major left bank tributaries are the Burhi Dihing and Dhansari (South)
whereas the important right bank tributaries are the Subansiri, Kameng, Manas
and Sankosh.
The Subansiri which has its origin in Tibet is an antecedent river.
The Brahmaputra enters into Bangladesh near Dhubri and flows southward.
In Bangladesh, the Tista joins it on its right bank from where the river is known
as the Jamuna.
It finally merges with the river Padma, which falls in the Bay of Bengal.
The Brahmaputra is well-known for floods, channel shifting and bank erosion.
This is due to the fact that most of its tributaries are large, and bring a large
number of sediments owing to heavy rainfall in its catchment area.
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Peninsular Drainage:

The Peninsular drainage system is older than the Himalayan one.

This is evident from the broad, largely-graded shallow valleys, and
the maturity of the rivers
 The Western Ghats running close to the western coast act as the
water divide between the major Peninsular Rivers, discharging their
water in the Bay of Bengal and as small rivulets joining the Arabian
Sea.
Most of the major Peninsular rivers except Narmada and Tapi flow
from west to east.
The Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa, the Ken, the Son, originating in
the northern part of the Peninsula belong to the Ganga river system.
The Evolution of Peninsular Drainage System:

Three major geological events in the distant past have

shaped the present drainage systems of Peninsular India:

(i) Subsidence of the western flank of the Peninsula leading to its

submergence below the sea during the early tertiary period.
Generally, it has disturbed the symmetrical plan of the river on either
side of the original watershed.
(ii) The upheaval of the Himalayas when the northern flank of the
peninsular block was subjected to subsidence and the consequent
trough faulting. The Narmada and The Tapi flow in trough faults
and fill the original cracks with their detritus materials. Hence,
there is a lack of alluvial and deltaic deposits in these rivers.

(iii) Slight tilting of the Peninsular block from northwest to the

southeastern direction gave orientation to the entire drainage
system towards the Bay of Bengal during the same period.
It has three broad divisions:

1. East Flowing rivers:

Mahanadi, Subarnarekha, Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery are major

Rivers of Peninsular India.

While Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery originate from the Western

Ghats, While Subarnarekha emerges from Ranchi plateau.

They drain into the Bay of Bengal. All except Subarnarekha form
Delta.
Mahanadi River:

The Mahanadi rises near Sihawa in Raipur district of Chhattisgarh and

runs through Odisha to discharge its water into the Bay of Bengal.

It is 851 km long and its catchment area spreads over 1.42 lakh sq.
km. Some inland navigation is carried on in the lower course of this
river.

Fifty-three per cent of the drainage basin of this river lies in Madhya
Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, while 47 per cent lies in Odisha.
Godavari River:

The Godavari is the largest peninsular river system. It is also called

the Dakshin Ganga.
It rises in the Nasik district of Maharashtra and discharges its
water into the Bay of Bengal.
Godavari tributaries run through the states of Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
It is navigable only in the deltaic stretch. The river after
Rajamundri splits into several branches forming a large delta.
It is 1,465 km long with a catchment area spreading
over 3.13 lakh sq km 49 per cent of this, lies in
Maharashtra, 20 per cent in Madhya Pradesh and
Chhattisgarh, and the rest in Andhra Pradesh.
The Penganga, the Indravati, the Pranhita, and the
Manjra are its principal tributaries.
The Godavari is subjected to heavy floods in its
lower reaches to the south of Polavaram, where it
forms a picturesque gorge.
Krishna River:

The Krishna is the second-largest east-flowing Peninsular

River which rises near Mahabaleshwar in Sahyadri. Its total
length is 1,401 km.
The Koyna, the Tungabhadra and the Bhima are its major
tributaries.
Of the total catchment area of the Krishna, 27 per cent lies
in Maharashtra, 44 per cent in Karnataka and 29 per cent in
Andhra Pradesh.
Kaveri River:

The Kaveri rises in Brahmagiri hills (1,341m) of Kogadu district

in Karnataka.
Its length is 800 km and it drains an area of 81,155 sq. km.
Since the upper catchment area receives rainfall during the
southwest monsoon season (summer) and the lower part during
the northeast monsoon season (winter), the river carries water
throughout the year with comparatively less fluctuation than the
other peninsular rivers.
About 3 per cent of the Kaveri basin falls in Kerala, 41 per cent
in Karnataka and 56 per cent in Tamil Nadu.
Its important tributaries are the Kabini, the Bhavani and the
Amravati.
The Baitarni, the Brahmani, the Vamsadhara, the Penner, the
Palar and the Vaigai are other east flowing important rivers.
 2.West flowing rivers:

Narmada, Tapi, Sabarmati, Mahi Rivers are major west-flowing rivers which
empty into the Arabian Sea and form estuaries.

Narmada River:

The Narmada originates on the western flank of the Amarkantak

plateau at a height of about 1,057 m.
While flowing in a rift valley between the Satpura in the south and the
Vindhyan range in the north, it forms a picturesque gorge in marble
rocks and Dhuandhar waterfall near Jabalpur.
After flowing a distance of about 1,312 km, it meets the Arabian Sea
south of Bharuch, forming a broad 27 km long estuary. Its catchment
area is about 98,796 sq. km.
The Sardar Sarovar Project along with other dams has been
constructed on this river under Narmada Multipurpose project.
Tapi River:

The Tapi is an important westward flowing river. It originates from Multai in

the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh.
Just like the Narmada, it flows in rift valley south of Satpura range. It is 724
km long and drains an area of 65,145 sq. km.
Nearly 79 per cent of its basin is in Maharashtra, 15 per cent in Madhya
Pradesh and the remaining 6 per cent in Gujarat.
Sabarmati and Mahi are the two famous rivers of Gujarat. They emerge
from Aravali range and flows into the Gulf of Khambhat into the Arabian Sea.
3.West flowing rivers of Sahyadris:

Hundreds of small rivers flow from the Western Ghats to

Arabian sea along the west coast of India.
They cover only a few kilometres and unable to form the
Delta. These rivers are Mondovi, Zuari, Kalindi, Sharavati etc.
Goa has two important rivers -One is Mandovi or
Mahadayi and the other is Juari.
The Shetruniji is one such river which rises near Dalkahwa
in Amreli district.
The Bhadra originates near Aniali village in Rajkot district.
The Dhadhar rises near Ghantar village in Panchmahal
district.
The Vaitarna rises from the Trimbak hills in Nasik district
at an elevation of 670 m.
The Kalinadi rises from Belgaum district and falls in the
Karwar Bay. The source of Bedti river lies in Hubli Dharwar
and traverses a course of 161 km.
The Sharavati is another important river in Karnataka
flowing towards the west. The Sharavati originates in
Shimoga district of Karnataka and drains a catchment area
of 2,209 sq. km.
Sharavati forms India’s highest waterfall called Jog fall,
which is used for hydroelectricity generation.
Kerala has a narrow coastline. The longest river of Kerala,
Bharathapuzha rises near Annamalai hills and flows through the
Palakkad gap.
It is also known as Ponnani. It drains an area of 5,397 sq. km.
The Periyar is the second largest river of Kerala. Its catchment
area is 5,243 sq. km. There is a marginal difference in the
catchment area of the Bhartapuzha and the Periyar rivers.
Another river in Kerala worth mentioning is the Pamba river
which falls in the Vembanad lake after traversing a course of
177 km.
CHILKA :

Largest lake of India, largest lagoon of Asia and the

second largest lagoon in the world.
At the mouth of Daya River, southwest of the
Mahanadi Delta
First wetland of India under Ramsar Convention
(1981)
6 islands – Parikud, Phulbani, Barahpura,
Nuapara, Nalbana, Tampara.
Largest wintering ground of migratory birds on the
Indian sub- continent
KOLLERU :

 Largest freshwater lake in India

 Between Krishna and Godavari deltas
 Fed by the two rivers
 Wildlife sanctuary , Ramsar Convention Site
 Attracts migratory birds from northern Asia and eastern Europe

PULICAT

Second largest lagoon of India

Southern part of Andhra Pradesh(86%) and northern Tamil Nadu
(14%)
Sriharikata Island separates it from the Bay of Bengal
Fishing, tourism
ASTHAMUDI :

Second largest backwater of Kerala

Deepest wetland of India
Near Kollam
Many corners, true to its name
Under the Ramsar Convention
Munroe, a cluster of eight tiny islands
Tourism ,coconut, fishery, minerals
VEMBANAD

Largest backwater lake of India

Longest lake of India
Cities – Kochi, Ernakulam, Allapuzha
Islands- Vypin, Willington, Vallarpadam etc.
Fishing, Tourism, Trade
KODAI LAKE :
 Manmade lake located in the Kodaikanal city in Tamil Nadu
 Kodaikanal’s most popular geographic landmark and tourist
attraction
 Sir Vere Hentry Levinge , the then collector of Madurai, was
instrumental in creating the lake in 1863

LONAR LAKE :

 A saltwater lake at Lonar in Buldhana district of Maharashtra

 Created by a meteor hitting the earth during the Pleistocene
epoch
 Only crater in the great basaltic formation in India
SAMBHAR

Largest inland salt lake of India located between Jaipur

and Ajmer along the NH-8
Elliptical shaped, surrounded from all sides by the
Aravali Hills
Used for the salt production (8.7%of India)
Included under the Ramsar Convention
Lake basin is divided by a 5.1 km long dam made of sand
– stones
Water level fluctuates with seasons
RENUKA LAKE

 Located in the Sirmour district of Himachal Pradesh

 Situated at the height of 672 m
 Largest natural lake of Himachal Pradesh
 Ramsar Convention Site

Full of colourful fish and other acquatic animals
 Surrounded by a wildlife sanctuary
LOKTAK :

Largest freshwater lake in the North-East

Located in Manipur
It has floating islands called ‘ phumdis ’.
Keibul Lamjao National Park
Source of water for hydropower generation, irrigation
and drinking water
Fishing
Under the Ramsar Convention
23 . NAGIN LAKE :

Nagin Lake is an offshoot leading from the Dal Lake located to

the east of Srinagar city.
Number of willow and poplar trees on the edges
A popular tourist destination

24. DAL LAKE :

Second largest lake of Kashmir Valley located in Srinagar

Nicknamed ‘Jewel of Kashmir’
Tourism, recreations, fishing, water plant harvesting
Shore line is dotted with gardens, parks, houseboats, hotels.
25. WULAR LAKE :

Horse – shoe shaped large fresh water lake in Bandipore

district
Formed of the tectonic activity and fed by Jhelam.
Ramsar Site
Lake’s size varies with season
Largest lake of the Kashmir Valley
Important fish habitat
Tulbul Project at its mouth
28. PANGONG TSO :

Frozen in winter even though it is saline. Endorheic lake

in the Himalayas in the ladakh region, found both in India
and Tibet
Situated at the height of 4350m
135 km long and 5 km wide at its broadest point
Ramsar Convention proposed
This will be first trans-boundary wetland in South Asia
under the convention
TSO MORIRI :

Located at the height of 4595 m in the South-

East Ladakh
Largest of the High Altitude Lakes entirely
within India
Ramsar Site
Threats to lake from many sources
RAKAS :-

Tibetan freshwater lake west of

Mansarovar Lake near Indo – Nepal border
Source of the Satluj River
Connected to the Mansarovar Lake by a
stream
Only one road reaches upto the lake from
the southeast
MANSAROVAR

Tibetan freshwater lake near the Indo-Nepal border east

of Rakas Lake
Highest body of freshwater in the world
Height- (4556m)
Frozen in the winter
Connected to the Rakas by the natural Ganga Chhu
Channel
Source of Sutlej and nearby it Indus, Brahmaputra and
Karnali originate
As per the Hindu theology one who touches the earth of
Mansarovar will go to the paradise
Soils in India
 Soil is the uppermost layer of Earth’s crust.
 Soil is the medium in which plants grow and thus it
supports the lives on earth.
 A number of factors contribute to the soil formation and
fertility viz.
 Various forces of nature such as change in temperature,
actions of running water, wind and glaciers, activities of
decomposers etc. contribute to the formation of soil
 Chemical and organic changes which take place in the soil
are equally important
Types of Soils
Found in India
Alluvial Soil
 Formed by depositional work of rivers valleys, flood plains & deltas
 Highly fertile Riverine soils → Transported type
 Largest Tract → Satluj Ganga Plains
 Less connection with Parent material
 Rich in Potash but deficient in Nitrogen & Humus content
 Good for both rabi and kharif crops
 In delta region, they are ideal for jute cultivation
 Best for cereals & Pulses
 Khadar → Deposited by flood annually (Fresh silt) → non porous,
clayey and loamy
 Bhangar → Above flood level; well drained & drier → coarse in
nature, contain kankar (lime nodules), pebbles, gravels
 Forms 22.16 % of the total land area of the country.
Black Soil
• Formed By solidification of Lava
• Mainly found in Deccan Plateau
• Also known as black cotton soil or Regur soil
• Black colour is due to its iron content, derived from plutonic
lava materials
• Highly fertile (< Alluvial)
• Residual type of Soil
• Deficient in organic content, phosphorus, nitrogen
• Rich in lime and iron, magnesia and alumina; also
contains Potash
• Highly clayey and impermeable → Highly moisture
retentive
• Ploughed in dry season as on evaporation cracks
develop for better seed penetration
• Regions → Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
Andhra Pradesh, Parts of Tamil Nadu
• Forms 16.6 % of the total land area of the country
Red Soil
Formed by weathering of Igneous (crystalline) &
metamorphic rocks
Less fertile than Alluvial & Black soils
Lacks water retentive capacity
Reddish in color due to presence of Feo (Ferrous
oxide)
Looks Yellow in Hydrated form
Transported type of soil
Deficient in nitrogen, lime, magnesia, humus and
phosphate
Rich in potash and become fertile with the proper use
of fertilizers and irrigation
Are porous, aerated & friable in nature
Regions → Periphery areas of Deccan Plateau viz.
Chhotanagpur plateau, Telangana, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
Suitable for the cultivation of millets, pulses, Linseed,
tobacco etc.
Forms 10.6% of the total land area of the country
 Laterite Soil

• Formed under conditions of high temperature and heavy

rainfall with alternate wet and dry periods
• Thus its formation takes place strictly under monsoon
conditions
• Formed by leaching away of siliceous matter
• With rain, Lime & Silica leaches away, leaving insoluble Feo
& Al compounds → Desilication
• Humus content of soil is fast removed by bacteria which
thrive well in high temp.
• Residual type of soils, formed by leaching in areas of heavy
rain
• Mainly found in Highland or Plateaus with heavy rainfall
• Not useful for agriculture except for plantation crops like
Tea, Rubber, Coffee & Cashews
• Used as building material & in making bricks
• Are of Coarse texture with soft & friable nature
• Poor in Lime, Nitrogen, Magnesium & Humus content ; Rich
in Feo & Alumina
• Regions → Meghalaya, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, hilly
regions of Assam, Rajmahal hills and Chhotanagpur plateau
• Forms 7.2 % of the total land area of the country
Saline / Alkaline Soil
• Found in arid or semi-arid conditions along with water
logged areas
• Highly saline due to dry climate, poor drainage & high
evaporation
• Infertile & does not support vegetative growth
• Found at Bihar, Rajasthan, UP., Punjab, Haryana,
Maharashtra
• Salinity also Caused due to excessive irrigation in dry
conditions which promotes capillary action
Arid Soil
• Found in areas with rainfall < 50 cm
• Sandy, porous, coarse & rich in salts
• Generally saline due to high evaporation
• Covered with thick brown mantle which inhibits soil growth
• Originated from the mechanical disintegration of the
ground rock of by deposition by wind
• Low rainfall and high temperature are reasons for the
formation of this soil
• Mainly in SW Haryana & Punjab and W – Rajasthan
• Actually fertile, water being the only limiting factor
• Cereals grown are Jowar, Bajra, Ragi & Oil seeds → Drought
resistance crops
• Forms 3.9 % of the total land area of the country
Mountain Soils

 Prone to soil erosion → top soil getting washed away due to

the steep slopes of the mountains after a heavy rainfall
 These soils are mostly thin and infertile
 Include peat, meadow and forest hill soils
 Rich in humus but deficient in potash, phosphorous and
lime
 Generally loamy & silty on valley side and coarser in upper
slopes
 Useful for Tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits
 Regions → Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttaranchal, Assam, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh
Peaty / Organic Soil
 Found in high rainfall + high humid areas of WB, Orissa &
Kerala
 Rich in Humus & organic content, Sometimes alkaline too
 Heavy, Dark & acidic

Salinity of soils
• Predominance of Chloride & sulfates of N, Ca & Mg, Esp. of
NaCO3
• Decreases soil fertility, Quality of fodder becomes poor,
Difficulties in Housing & road construction
• Addition of Gypsum (Converts Alkalis to compounds),
Addition of rice husk & rice straw also counters alkalinity by
forming light acids
• Crop rotation involving Daincha (Green Fodder) also
counters salinity
Terrace Farming
• On hilly slopes, terraces act as bunds and prevent the soil from
being washed away
• Farming is done on a unique step like structure and the force of
water running off is slowed down
• Terraced farming is more common on small farms and in
underdeveloped countries, since mechanized equipment is difficult
to deploy in this setting

Contour ploughing
• Land should never be ploughed up & down as it increases erosion
• Ploughing along contours on a slope prevents soil being washed
away by rainwater or by surface run off
• Contours act like bunds and thus prevents soil erosion by allowing
water to slowly penetrate the soil
• Terraces are leveled into step like small fields with even slope
Afforestation
• Planting of trees along the edges of the fields, the waste
land and on steep slopes to prevent soil erosion
• Also to enhance the capacity of the soil to retain water

Shelter Belts 

A line of trees or shrubs planted to protect an area,

especially a field of crops, from fierce weather
Farmers plant trees in several rows to check wind
erosion
Also known as wind breaks
Cover crops / Crop rotations
• Cover crops such as legumes, white turnip, radishes and
other species are rotated with cash crops to blanket the soil
year-round
• Act asgreen manurethat replenishes nitrogen and other
critical nutrients
• Also help suppress weeds & increase soil fertility

Construction of Dams

• Rivers causes soil erosion

• Dams are built in the upper course of rivers to control
erosion of soil
• This would check the speed of water and thereby save soil
from erosion
Mulching
• Mulchesare materials placed over the soil surface to
maintain moisture and improve soil conditions
• A protective layer of a material that is spread on top of the
soil
• Mulches can either be organic — such as grass clippings,
straw, bark chips, and similar materials
• Or inorganic — such as stones, brick chips, and plastic
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