LECTURE: TWO

Data Communication Layers

Senait G. (MSc.)
04/03/2023
Lecture outline
 OSI 7 layer reference model and concepts of open
standards
 Motivation for standards
 Addressing
 ISO reference model
 Internetworking with TCP/IP model
 Protocols
 Concept of Encapsulation and Decapsulation
OSI 7 layer reference model and concepts of open standards
When networks first came into being; computers could typically communicate only with
computers from the same manufacturer.
In the late 1984, the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model was created by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) to break this barrier.
 The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate communication between different systems

without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and software.

Open System Interconnection (OSI) is a reference model that describes how

information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical
medium to the software application in another computer.
 A conceptual framework for understanding how data is passed from one device to the other.

OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
 Each layer is assigned a particular task.
 Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently
Why of OSI reference model?
 Allows users to understand network communication. 
 Helps you to understand communication over a network
 Troubleshooting is easier by separating functions into
different network layers.
 Helps you to understand new technologies as they are
developed.
 Allows you to compare primary functional relationships on
various network layers.
 The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers
and lower layers.
 The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the
application related issues, and they are implemented only in the
software.
 The application layer is closest to the end user.
 Both the end user and the application layer interact with the software
applications.
 An upper layer refers to the layer just above another layer.
 The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport
issues.
 The data link layer and the physical layer are implemented in
hardware and software.
 The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is
closest to the physical medium.
 The physical layer is mainly responsible for placing the
information on the physical medium.
Addressing
 Four levels of addresses are used in an internet
employing the TCP/IP protocols: physical address, logical
address, port address, and application-specific address.
 Each address is related to a one layer in the TCP/IP architecture
Application-Specific address
 Some applications have user-friendly addresses that are
designed for that specific application.
 Examples include the e-mail address (for example,
co_sci@yahoo.com) and the Universal Resource Locator (URL) (for
example, www.mhhe.com).
 The first defines the recipient of an e-mail; the second is used to find
a document on the World Wide Web.
 These addresses, however, get changed to the corresponding port
and logical addresses by the sending computer.
Port address
 It is called port number
 Computers are devices that can run multiple processes at the same time.
 The end objective of Internet communication is a process communicating with another
process.
 A port number is a way to identify a specific process to which an Internet or other network

message is to be forwarded when it arrives at a server.

 This port number is passed logically between client and server transport layers and physically

between the transport layer and the internet protocol layer and forwarded on.
 For example, computer A can communicate with computer C by using TELNET.
 At the same time, computer A communicates with computer B by using the File
Transfer Protocol (FTP).
 For these processes to receive data simultaneously, we need a method to label the
different processes.

Port Protocol Description

23 TELNET Terminal Network Reading assignment:
 explore more port
21 FTP File Transfer Protocol
numbers
53 DNS Domain Name Server
80 HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol
Logical address/IP address
 Logical addresses are necessary for universal
communications that are independent of underlying physical
networks.
 Physical addresses are not adequate in an internetwork
environment where different networks can have different
address formats.
 A universal addressing system is needed in which each host
can be identified uniquely, regardless of the underlying physical
network.
 A logical address in the Internet is currently a 32-bit address
that can uniquely define a host connected to the Internet.
 No two publicly addressed and visible hosts on the Internet can
have the same IP address.
Physical address
 The physical address, also known as the link address or MAC
address, is the address of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN.
 MAC(Media Access Control) Address is a 48-bit alpha-numeric number that
is embedded in NIC(Network Interface Card) by the manufacturer.
 It is included in the frame used by the data link layer.
 It is the lowest-level address.
 Most local area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address written
as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is
separated by a colon

 Note that although physical addresses will change from

hop to hop, logical addresses remain the same from
the source to destination.
OSI reference model

 Here are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different
functions.
Application layer
 The Application layer is the topmost layer of the OSI model.
 This layer is mostly used by the network applications, that use the network. 
 It mainly acts as an interface between the user and the network services.
 The Application layer provides services for network applications with the help
of protocols. 
 An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes
to access network service.
 An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer
functions.
 This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
Following are the main functionalities of an application layer:
 File Transfer: 
 The Application layer mainly facilitates the file transfer between two
network devices with the help of FTP(File Transfer Protocol).
 Web Surfing: 
 Web surfing is possible only in the application layer.
 Some protocols like HTTP(Hypertext Transfer Protocol), HTTPs(Hypertext
Transfer Protocol Secure), etc. enables web surfing.
 Emails: 
 Electronic-mails can be sent from one device to another on the network
only through the application layer.
 Some protocols like SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), etc. are used
for sending emails over the network.
 Network Virtual Terminal:
  The Application layer facilitates the remote host login in the network with
the help of protocols like Telnet, etc.
 It can also be referred to as the software version of the physical terminal in
the network.
Presentation layer
 The Presentation layer is the sixth layer of the OSI model.
 It mainly performs data translation, encryption & decryption, and
compression in the network.
  The presentation layer deals with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between two systems.
 At the sender's side, it receives the data from the application layer and
performs data encryption and compression to it.
 At the receiver's side, it receives the data from the transport layer and
performs data translation, decryption, and decompresses data.
Functions of Presentation layer:
 Data Translation:
  Data translation refers to transforming data from one form to the other.
 It ensures that the data being sent is in the format that the recipient can process.

• The presentation layer at the sender changes the information from its sender-
dependent format into a common format.
• The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the common format into its
receiver-dependent format.
 Data Encryption and Decryption: 
 Data encryption is the process of converting a plain text into cypher text for
security.
 Encryption is applied to the data at the sender's side.
 Data decryption is the process of converting a ciphertext into plain text.
 It is applied to the data at the receiver's side.
 Data Compression: 
 Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the
number of bits to be transmitted.
 Data compression is very important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.
Session layer
 The Session layer is the fifth layer of the OSI model.
 It mainly helps in setting up, closing and managing the connection
in the network. 
 Actually, whenever two devices get connected, a session is
created, which is terminated as soon the connection is no longer
required.
 The termination of the session is important to avoid the
unnecessary wastage of resources.
 In other words, the session layer performs session management.
 The session layer enables the devices to send and receive the data by
establishing connections and also terminates the connection after the
data transfer.
Following are the main functionalities of a session layer:
 Authentication: 
 Authentication is a process of verifying the user.
 The session layer may ask the devices to enter valid login
credentials, so as to maintain a secure data connection.
 Authorization: 
 Authorization is the process of determining the user's authority to access
the data.
 The session layer determines whether the device has permission to
access those data elements or not.
 Synchronization: 
 The session layer synchronizes the sender and receiver.
 It adds various checkpoints with the data to synchronize data at the
sender's and receiver's side.
 In case of any crash or transfer failure, the data transmission can be
resumed from the last checkpoint.
 There is no need to retransfer the whole data.
Transport layer
 The Transport layer is the fourth layer of the OSI model.
 It is mainly responsible for the process-to-process delivery of the
data. 
 It performs flow and error control in the data for its proper transmission. 
 The transport layer controls the reliability of communication through
various functionalities.
 At the sender's side, the transport layer receives the data from the upper
layer and performs segmentation. 
 The source and destination port numbers are also included in the header file of
the data before forwarding it to the network layer.
 At the receiver's side, the transport layer performs the reassembly and
sequencing of data.
 It reads the port number of the data from the header file, and then direct it
towards the proper application.
Functions of Transport Layer
 Segmentation:
  Dividing the data received into multiple data segments can be termed as segmentation.
 Each segment has the source and destination 'port' and 'sequence' number.
 The port number helps to direct each data segment to the correct application, while the
sequence number keeps them in a correct sequence when the segmented data is received at
the receiver's side.
 Flow Control: 
 The transport layer controls the flow of the data being transmitted.
 It is mainly done to avoid any data loss and enhance data transmission efficiency.
 Error Control: 
 The transport layer checks for any kind of errors in the data using the checksum bits that are
present in the data header.
 It can also request for retransmission of some data if it is not received at the receiver's end.
 Connection Control: 
 The transport layer also maintains the connection between the devices in a proper way.
 For connection-oriented transmission, TCP(Transmission Control Protocol) is used.
 TCP is quite slow but is reliable in nature.
 It can be used for long-distance transmissions.
 For connection-less transmission, UDP(User Datagram Protocol) is used.
 UDP is fast but not reliable in nature.
 It is mainly preferred for short-distance transmissions.
Network layer
 The Network layer is the third layer of the OSI model.
 It mainly performs the transmission of data from one computer to
another in different networks. 
 This layer may not be so beneficial if we are transmitting the data in the
same network. 
 It is responsible to manages device addressing, tracks the location of
devices on the network.
 It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination
based on the network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
 At the sender side, the network layer breaks the data segments received
from the upper layer into smaller units, called data packets.
 Similarly, at the receiver's side, it reassembles the data packets into
segments for the upper layer, i.e., the transport layer.
Functions of Network Layer:
 Internetworking: 
 An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer.
 It provides a logical connection between different devices.
 Addressing: 
 A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header of
the frame.
 Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
 Routing: 
 Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the
best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.
 Routers are mainly used in the network layer for routing purposes.
 Called layer 3 device
 Packetizing: 
 A Network Layer receives the data segment from the upper layer and
converts them into packets.
 This process is known as Packetizing.
 It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).
Data-Link Layer
 The Data-Link Layer is the second layer of the OSI model.
 It is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.
 It defines the format of the data on the network.
 It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more
devices.
 It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that
resides on a local network.
 The source and destination MAC addresses are included in the data
header file by the data-link layer.
 At the sender's side, it receives the data in the form of packets from the
network layer and converts it into smaller forms, called the data frame.
 At the receiver's side, it converts the data frame into packets for the
network layer.
 The data-link layer is embedded as software in the NIC which
provides a means for data transfer from one computer to another via a
local media.
 Thus, the data-link layer facilitates the transmission of data within the same network
only.
Functions of the Data-link layer
 Framing:
  The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into
packets known as Frames.
 The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame.
 The header which is added to the frame contains the hardware destination
and source address.
 Trailer contains the error detection and error correction bits.
 It is also called a Frame Check Sequence (FCS)
 Physical Addressing:
 It performs the physical addressing of data.
 Physical addressing is the process of adding the physical(MAC) address
to the data called frame.
 Flow Control: 
 It is the main functionality of the Data-link layer.
 It is the technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both
the sides so that no data get corrupted.
 It controls the data rate of the transmission to control the data flow.
 Error Control:
  Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is
added to the message frame before it is sent to the physical layer.
 If any error seems to occur, then the receiver sends the acknowledgment for
the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
 Access Control: 
 When two or more devices are connected to the same communication
channel, then the data link layer are used to determine which device
has control over the link at a given time.
Physical layer
 The Physical Layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and it
deals with data in the form of bits or signals. 
 The type of signal being generated depends upon the
transmission medium.
 For example, if we are using copper wire or LAN cable, the output
signal will be an electrical signal.
 Likewise, the output signal will be a light signal for optical fibre cable, and
radio signal for air as a transmission medium.
 At the sender's side, the physical layer will get the data from the
upper layer and convert it into bit streams(0's and 1's) and send it
through a physical channel.
 At the receiver's side, it will convert the bits treams into frames to
be passed to the data-link layer.
Following are the functionalities of a physical layer:
 It defines the transmission media between two connecting devices.
 It also specifies the data rate(number of bits sent each second)
over the defined media.
 It defines the network topology.
 It defines a data transmission mode
 It can be Simplex, Half-Duplex, or Duplex.
 It defines the type of signal in the transmission.
 It defines the line configuration of the network.
 It can be point-to-point or multiport.
TCP/IP model
 TCP/IP Model helps you to determine how a specific computer should be
connected to the internet and how data should be transmitted between them.
 It is a suite of communication protocols used to interconnect network devices on the
internet.
 TCP/IP is also used as a communications protocol in a private computer network (an
intranet or extranet).
 It helps you to create a virtual network when multiple computer networks are
connected together.
 The purpose of TCP/IP model is to allow communication over large distances.
 It was developed by the DoD (Department of Defence) in the 1960s.
 It is named after the two main protocols that are used in the model, namely,
TCP and IP.
 TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol and IP stands for Internet
Protocol.
 It consists four layers.
 It doesn’t concern about the specific service or function they provide.
 Worry about the communication process with suites of protocol.
The four layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite are:
Application Layer
 This is the topmost layer and defines the interface of host programs with the transport
layer services.
 This layer includes all high-level protocols like Telnet, DNS, HTTP, FTP, SMTP, etc.

Transport Layer
  It is responsible for error-free end-to-end delivery of data.
 The protocols defined here are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User
Datagram Protocol (UDP).
Network layer
 It is Called Internet Layer
 It defines the protocols for logical transmission of data over the network.
 The main protocol in this layer is Internet Protocol (IP) and it is supported by the
protocols ICMP, IGMP, RARP, and ARP.
Interface layer
 It is Called Host-to- Network Layer
 It has function of both data link and physical layers of OSI model
 It is the lowest layer that is concerned with the physical transmission of data.
 TCP/IP does not specifically define any protocol here but supports all the standard
protocols.
Application layer protocols
 Http (hyper text transfer protocol)
 It is known as client – server protocol
 It is used by the World Wide Web and this protocol defines how messages are formatted
and transmitted, and what actions Web servers and browsers should take in response to
various commands.
 https (secure hyper text transfer protocol)
 FTP or file transfer protocol
 It is used to transfer (upload/download) data from one computer to another over the
internet or through or computer network.
 FTP is a most commonly communication protocol for transferring the files over
the internet
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
 It is a protocol that is used to send the email messages between the
servers.
 Post Office Protocol (POP)
 It is a type protocol used retrieves email from a remote mail server for access by
the host machine.
 allows the user to pick up the message and download it into his own inbox
 Dynamic host configuration protocol (DHCP)
 It is a protocol that is used by the network computers to obtain the IP
dynamically.
 The domain name system (DNS)
 It is the way that internet domain names are located and translated into
internet protocol (IP) addresses.
 Telnet (TN)
 It is a networking protocol and software program used to access remote
computers and terminals over the Internet or a TCP/IP computer network.
 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
 It is an application-layer protocol used to manage and monitor
network devices and their functions.
Transport layer protocols

Transport control protocol

 TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, which means a connection is established and

maintained until the application programs at each end have finished exchanging
messages.
 TCP is a connection-oriented sub protocol, which means that a connection must be

established between communicating nodes before this protocol will transmit data.
 TCP further ensures reliable data delivery through sequencing and checksums.

 TCP is a reliable transport because of the different techniques it uses to ensure that

the data received is error free.

 Once the data transfer has started, TCP controls the flow of data b/n two

nodes
User datagram protocol
 UDP, like TCP, belongs to the Transport layer of the OSI Model.
 Unlike TCP, however, UDP is a connectionless transport service.
 In other words, UDP offers no assurance that packets will be received in the
correct sequence.
• UDP does not sequence the segments and does not care in which order the segments

arrive at the destination.

• UDP doesn’t create a virtual circuit, nor does it contact the destination before
delivering information to it.
• Because of this, it’s also considered a connectionless protocol.

• UDP’s lack of sophistication makes it more efficient than TCP.

• It can be useful in situations where a great volume of data must be transferred

quickly, such as live audio or video transmissions over the Internet.

Internet layer protocols

 IP
 It provides a standard set of rules for sending and receiving data over the
internet.
 It can do this because all the machines on the network have logical address called
an IP address.
 IP looks at each packet’s address.
 Then, using a routing table, it decides where a packet is to be sent next, choosing
the best path.
 ICMP (internet control message protocol)
 It is a Network layer protocol that reports on the success or failure of data delivery.

 ARP (address resolution protocol)

 It finds the hardware address (MAC) of a host from a known IP address .
 ARP translates the software (IP) address into a hardware address
 RARP (reverse address resolution protocols)
 It finds the IP address from known MAC address or physical address
 Used by diskless device
Concept of encapsulation and decapsulation
Data Encapsulation
 Encapsulation is the process of adding additional information when data is
traveling in OSI or TCP/IP model.
 The additional information has been added on sender’s side, starting from
Transport layer to Physical layer.
Working of Encapsulation
 There will be no additional information added in the user’s data in the
Application layer in TCP/IP model or Application, Presentation, Session
layers in OSI model.
 Then Session layer sends data to Transport layer.
 In the Transport layer, the data broken up into different pieces.
 It adds the header in each of the broken data, which contains information like
source port, destination port, sequence number, etc.
 Now, everything combined to a new form.
 The encapsulated data in Transport layer is called Segments or Datagrams.
 If the transmission uses TCP, then it is called Segments, or UDP is called
Datagrams.
 Now, the data will travel down and reach Network layer.
 Here, layer 3 header is added.
 That contains information like source IP, destination IP, and so on.
 This information combines into a new form.
 The encapsulated data in the network layer is called Packets.
 Now, network layer sends packet to Data Link layer When it
enters into data link layer, a new header(Layer 2) is added.
 Also, a trailer is added.
 It contains information like source MAC address, destination MAC address,
and so on.
 The trailer is used for error checking.
 The encapsulated data in the data link layer is called Frames.
 The physical layer takes frames from Data Link layer.
 The encapsulated data in the physical layer is called Bits.
 That is how encapsulation takes place
Protocol Data Unit (PDU)
 The encapsulated data is called by different names when it
travels down following layers.
 Those names are called Protocol Data Unit.
 The following table shows the name of encapsulated data
in each layer.
De-encapsulation
 De-encapsulation is the exact reverse process of encapsulation.
 The additional information added on the sender’s side(during
encapsulation) gets removed when it travels on the receiver’s side
from the Physical layer to the Application layer.
Working of De-encapsulation
 The Physical layer gets the bits and de-encapsulates them into
frames and sends them to the upper layer.
 The Data Link layer receives the frames and checks MAC address
whether it is matching or not.
 If everything matched and also no error is found.
 Then layer 2 header and layer 2 trailer are removed.
 It de-encapsulates the data and packet sent to upper layer.
 The Network layer receives the packet from Data Link layer.
 It checks for IP addresses.
 If it matched then, the header in layer 3 is removed.
 Now the de-encapsulated data packet is delivered to the
Transport layer.
 Now, the Transport layer gets the data segments/ datagrams from
the Network layer and removes the layer 4 header.
 After traveling through Session, Presentation, and Application
layer, the de-encapsulated data is sent to the receiver.
 That is how the de-encapsulation takes place.
Assignment

• What are the Similarities and difference between OSI

reference model and TCP/IP model?
• Which network device is used in which layer of OSI
reference model? Why?
• Discuss TCP 3-way handshake.
• Some other protocols that are used in TCP/IP model?
 Questions?
 Thank you!