DNA Replication and

Repair
Keziah Nicole A. Valenzuela BSED 3-B
DNA Replication
● DNA replication is the process by which a double-stranded DNA
molecule is copied to produce two identical DNA molecules.
● This replication process occurs during the synthesis phase, or S phase,
of the cell cycle, before the cell enters mitosis or meiosis.
● The process of DNA replication is vital for cell growth, repair, and
reproduction in organisms.
Steps and Process for DNA
Replication
Step 1: Replication Fork Formation
Before the replication process occurs, the double
stranded molecule must be “unzipped” into two
single strands.

● DNA has four bases called adenine (A),

thymine (T), cytosine (C) and guanine (G)
that form pairs between the two strands.

Take note that adenine will only pair with thymine

and cytosine will only pair with guanine
Step 1: Replication Fork Formation
In order to unwind DNA, these interactions between
base pairs must be broken. This is performed by an
enzyme known as DNA helicase.

● DNA helicase disrupts the hydrogen bonding

between base pairs to separate the strands into
a Y shape known as the replication fork. This
area will be the template for replication to
begin.
Step 2: Primer Binding
The leading strand is the simplest to replicate. Once the DNA
strands have been separated, a short piece of RNA called a
primer binds to the 3' end of the strand.

The primer always binds as the starting point for replication.

Primers are generated by the enzyme DNA primase.

● Primase is an enzyme that synthesizes short RNA sequences

called primers. These primers serve as a starting point for DNA
synthesis.
Step 3: Elongation
● Enzymes known as DNA polymerases are responsible creating the new
strand by a process called elongation.
○ DNA polymerase III is the main replication enzyme, while
polymerase I, II, IV and V are responsible for error checking and
repair.

● DNA polymerase III binds to the strand at the site of the primer and
begins adding new base pairs complementary to the strand during
replication.
Step 3: Elongation
The lagging strand begins replication by binding with multiple primers.

DNA polymerase then adds pieces of DNA, called Okazaki fragments, to the strand between primers. This
process of replication is discontinuous as the newly created fragments are disjointed.

● Okazaki fragments are small sections of DNA that are formed during discontinuous synthesis of the
lagging strand during DNA replication. They are important because they allow for both daughter
strands to be synthesized, which are necessary for cell division.
Step 4: Termination
● Once both the continuous and discontinuous strands are formed, an
enzyme called exonuclease removes all RNA primers from the original
strands with primers then being replaced with appropriate bases. Another
exonuclease “proofreads” the newly formed DNA to check, remove and
replace any errors.
○ Exonucleases are group of enzymes that remove nucleotide bases from
the end of a DNA chain

● An enzyme called DNA ligase joins Okazaki fragments together forming a

single unified strand. The ends of the linear DNA present a problem as DNA
polymerase can only add nucleotides in the 5′ to 3′ direction.
Step 4: Termination
● The ends of the parent strands consist of repeated DNA sequences called
telomeres. Telomeres act as protective caps at the end of chromosomes to
prevent nearby chromosomes from fusing.
● A special type of DNA polymerase enzyme called telomerase catalyzes
the synthesis of telomere sequences at the ends of the DNA.
● Once completed, the parent strand and its complementary DNA strand
coils into the familiar double helix shape. In the end, replication produces
two DNA molecules, each with one strand from the parent molecule and
one new strand.
DNA Repair
Successful DNA replication requires that the two bases, adenine (A) and guanine (G), pair
with their counterparts, thymine (T) and cytosine (C).

● Different types of damage can prevent correct base pairing

○ Spontaneous mutations occur when DNA bases react with their environment
○ Replication errors are minimized when the DNA replication machinery
“proofreads” its own synthesis, but sometimes mismatched base pairs escape
proofreading.
○ Chemical agents modify bases and interfere with DNA replication.
When DNA is damaged, the cell often chooses to replicate over the lesion instead of
waiting for repair. Although this may lead to mutations, it is preferable to a complete halt
in DNA replication, which leads to cell death.

Most mistakes are corrected; if they are not, they may result in a mutation—defined as a
permanent change in the DNA sequence. Mutations in repair genes may lead to serious
consequences or illness such as cancer.
Repair Mechanisms

1. Direct reversal repair is specific to the damage.

○ a mechanism of repair where the damaged area or lesion is repaired directly by
specialised proteins in our body.
○ simplest form of DNA repair and the most energy efficient method.
○ does not require a reference template unlike the other single-strand repair
mechanism.
○ does not involve the process of breaking the phosphodiester backbone of the
DNA.
Repair Mechanisms
II. Base Excision Repair pathway by which cells
repair damaged DNA during DNA replication.

● helps ensure that mutations are not

incorporated into DNA as it is copied.
● a repair mechanism that corrects
damaged DNA by identifying damaged
bases and replacing damaged bases with
the correct nucleotide.
Repair Mechanisms
III. Nucleotide excision repair is a generic
type of excision repair mechanism

● detects damages based on the overall

structure integrity of the DNA
double helix. This allows it to be
able to support and repair multiple
types of DNA damage.
Repair Mechanisms
IV. Most mistakes are corrected during
replication, although when this does not happen,
the mismatch repair mechanism is employed.

Mismatch repair enzymes recognize the

wrongly incorporated base and excise it from
the DNA, replacing it with the correct base
DNA replicates by a semi-conservative method in which each of the two parental DNA
strands act as a template for new DNA to be synthesized. After replication, each DNA has
one parental or “old” strand, and one daughter or “new” strand. Errors made during
replication are typically repaired. If they are not, mutations can result.
 Resources
● https://open.lib.umn.edu/humanbiology/chapter/6-3-dna-replication/
● https://www.britannica.com/science/base-excision-repair
● https://www.britannica.com/science/DNA-repair
● https://www.expii.com/t/dna-replication-steps-diagram-10210
● https://www.thoughtco.com/dna-replication-3981005

Video links for additional information:

DNA Replication
What Happens When Your DNA is Damaged?