CULTURE, PSYCHOLOGY and

NEUROSCIENCE: From Genes

to Psychodynamics
Dr. Julian Toh
Lead Clinician, Salisbury CMHT
“ It is mans participation in culture and the
realization of his mental powers THROUGH
culture, that makes it possible to construct a
human psychology, based on the individual
alone”
 - Jerome Bruner, 1990
…..However, BRUNER’s quote illustrates the extreme position of the SSSM (Standard
Social Science Model).

The SSSM starts with an Assumption that we all are born with a “Blank Slate”, upon
which Culture inscribes its rituals, belief systems, codes of conduct and pathways to
meaning and purpose
At the opposite spectrum is the extreme of Biological Determinism, and that we are
‘nothing but’ the products of our biology.

A goal of this presentation is to aim for an INTEGRATED APPROAH, whereby Culture

does exert significant influence on our evolution and development, but this influence is
subject to BIOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS.
Hence we will progress from GENETICS to PSYCHOLOGY and finally to
PSYCHODYNAMICS and PSYCHOANALYTIC theories.
Cross Cultural Epigenetic
Differences: The SEROTONIN
TRANSPORTER GENE as
example
INTRODUCTION

 Conventional Evolution Theory: Organisms adapt to

environment over time, and exhibit traits/characteristics that
best enable them to SURVIVE and REPRODUCE
 The above is termed NATURAL SELECTION
 CULTURE-GENE
CULTURE-GENE CO-EVOLUTION
CO-EVOLUTION THEORY:
THEORY: Human
Human Behavior is a
Behaviour
by-product ofisGenetic
a by-product of Genetic
and Cultural andCultural
Evolution: Culturaltraits
Evolution:
are
adaptive,
Culturaland evolve/influence
traits are adaptive,the
andsocial and physical environments
evolve/influence the social and
under whichenvironments
physical genetic selection operates.
under which genetic selection operates.
 This theory has not yet received widespread empirical
attention.
Concept of SELF CONSTRUAL STYLE

Derived from a Dutch organizational sociologist: Geert Hofstede.

Hofstede did a massive study for IBM in the 1970s, involving several 100
000 workers in 70 countries

He found several cultural factors that shaped business practice, the most
famous being the spectrum between INVIDUALISTIC and
COLLECTIVISTIC cultures.
Hofstede’s Cultural Dimension Theory:
components
TWO SELF-CONSTRUAL STYLES

1. INDIVIDUALISM: 2. COLLECTIVISM:
 Encourage thinking of  Encourages thinking of
people as independent people as highly
of each other interconnected
 Emphasize self  Favors maintenance of
expression and pursuit social harmony over
of individual goals individual assertions
Self-Construal Style affects a wide range of human behavior, including
how people feel, think, perceive and reason about people and objects
in their environment.
 Victorian Transcultural Psychiatry Unit
Individualist cultures Collectivist cultures
 Identity is based on the individual Identity based on the social network
 Children learn to think in terms of “We”
 Children learn to think in terms of “I”
 Interests of the (in)group are
 Interests of the individual are paramount
paramount
 Speaking one’s mind is valued  Maintenance of social harmony is
 Everyone has a right to privacy valued
 “Self-actualisation” is the developmental No expectation of privacy in the group
goal  Mature inter-dependence is the
developmental goal
 Autonomy and independence, Individual
 Interdependence and obedience, Shared
responsibility
responsibility
 Self-reliance
 Protection by, loyalty to the group
 Rule-breaking leads to guilt and loss of  Rule-breaking leads to shame and loss
self-respect of face for self and group
COLLECTIVISM IN WORLD CULTURES
YELLOW is low in Collectivism
RED is high.
(from Chiao and Blizinsky 2009).
Jonathon Haidt’s “ W.E.I.R.D”
Western, Educated, Individualistic, Rich and Democratic: WEIRD societies are
actually the MINORITY world culture
 Candidate Vulnerability Genes for
distress/’disorder’

 Monoamine Oxidase: MAO-A (VNTR variant)

 Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COM-T): likewise with MAO-A: needed for Dopa

and NA catabolism

 5HTT (SLC6A4): short allele

 5HT2A receptor variants

 OXTR: social help seeking behaviours

 Opioid (OPRM1 A118G): social rejection

 Dopaminergic system: DRD4, DRD2 and DAT-1 (novelty seeking)

 Neurotrophins and BDNF

 CRH and ACTH, even serum Cholesterol!

 THE SEROTONIN TRANSPORTER
GENE (5HTT)

 First described by Klaus Peter Lesch 1996

 Regulates Serotonin Neurotransmission
(5HTT): SLC6A4 on Chromosome 17
 Contains a polymorphic region: 5HTTLPR
 5HTTLPR comprises of a Short (S) allele
and a Long (L) allele
 Individuals with S allele produce
significantly less 5HTT MRNA and protein,
hence higher concentrations of 5HT in
synaptic cleft
THE SEROTONIN TRANSPORTER
GENE
THE SEROTONIN TRANSPORTER GENE
Individuals carrying the S allele show Greater Amygdala response, due to:

Increased Amygdala resting activation

Decreased functional coupling with subgenual cingulate
THE SEROTONIN TRANSPORTER
GENE

‘S Allele’ is associated with:

• Attentional bias to negative emotions

• Heightened Anxiety
• Harm Avoidance
• Fear conditioning
• INCREASED RISK FOR DEPRESSION in the presence
of environmental risk factors
5HTT: CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
 Evidence from Population Genetics reveals greater
population frequency of 5HTTLPR S allele carriers within
certain parts of the world, ie EAST ASIA
 Typical East Asian sample: 70-80% are S carriers

 Typical comparative European sample: 40-45% are S carriers

Hence, there SHOULD be a heightened prevalence of negative

affect and related disorders in East Asian populations…..
Known Prevalence of S-S and S-L 5HTT variants worldwide
Yellow= low rates
Orange= middle (40-50%)
Red= high (80plus%)
Results from correlation analysis between Hofstede's individualism–
collectivism index and frequency of S allele carriers of the 5-HTTLPR across 29
nations. Collectivistic nations showed higher prevalence of S allele carriers
5HTT: Cultural Differences
 However, evidence from multiple cross-cultural
epidemiological studies indicate East Asian populations
report consistently LOWER prevalences of:

- Negative affect (such as anxiety)

- Diagnosed Mood Disorders

 WHY is this so, given that majority of individuals in East Asia
carry the S allele of the 5HTT gene, which is associated in
Western cultures with negative affect and clinical disorders?
Percentages of populace diagnosed with mood disorders
some time in lifetime.
Yellow is low, Red is high, and Grey = lacking sufficient data. Compared to previous picture,
North America and Asia does not match. In fact, almost completely reversed! (if the
prevalence of ‘depression gene’ predicts the prevalence of depression: it doesn’t.)
5HTT: Cultural Differences
 J Chiao at al (2009) studied this very question.

 Early possibilities were excluded, such as:

 Possibility of underdiagnosis of depression in East Asia and

overdiagnosis in Western countries: factor was there but not
enough to explain the near complete reversal of risk dynamic
 Possibility that East Asians carried some other gene(s) that
negated 5HTT gene’s depression risk: none discovered at this
point.
5HTT: Cultural Differences
 Study demonstrated a robust association between SELF
CONSTRUALS of individualism-collectivism, and ALLELIC
FREQUENCY of the 5HTT gene: Regions characterized by
Collectivism exhibit greater prevalence of S allele carriers.
 Across nations, BOTH collectivism and S allele frequency
TOGETHER NEGATIVELY predict global prevalence of
Anxiety, and Mood Disorders.
 This study also indicates that greater population frequency
of S allele carriers is associated with decreased prevalence
of anxiety/mood disorders DUE TO increased cultural
collectivism.
5HTT: GENE CULTURE CO-EVOLUTION
HYPOTHESES

 Collectivism may serve an ‘ANTI-PSYCHOPATHOLOGY’

function by:
 Creating an ecological niche that lowers the prevalence of
chronic life stressors
 Hence protecting genetically susceptible individuals from
environmental ‘pathogen’s known to trigger averse
emotion/psychopathology.
 Cultural values of Individualism and Collectivism are adaptive
and by products of evolution, more broadly.
5HTT: GENE CULTURE CO-EVOLUTION
HYPOTHESES

 Once cultural traits are adaptive, genetic selection causes

refinement of the cognitive/neural architecture responsible for
the storage and transmission of these capacities
 Affective biases in Attention and Cognition may serve as
likely candidate information processing mechanisms
involved in the above.
 Recent behavioral evidence indicates S-allele individuals
more likely to demonstrate ATTENTIONAL BIASES toward
negative words and pictures, and NEGATIVE COGNITIVE
BIASES.
5HTT: GENE CULTURE CO-EVOLUTION
HYPOTHESES

 These putative information processing mechanisms, and

aforementioned Amygdala reactivity, act as
ENDOPHENOTYPES for mood disorders.
 These Endophenotypes confer varying degrees of
advantage/disadvantage DEPENDING ON CULTURAL
CONTEXT.
ENDOPHENOTYPES are measurable components, unseen by the unaided
eye, along the pathway between disease/disorder and genotype.
They may be neurophysiological, biochemical, neuroanatomical, cognitive
or neuropsychological in nature.
They have emerged as an important concept in the study of complex
neuropsychiatric disorders.
5HTT: GENE CULTURE CO-EVOLUTION
HYPOTHESES

 For those living in COLLECTIVE CULTURES, Heightened

Selective Attention and Increased Amygdala response to
negative information may be advantageous to achieving
collectivist norms such as social harmony.

- Greater vigilance to negative information may help detect early

another’s anger/fear, and hence foreshadow avoidance of
behaviors/situations that may induce negative emotional states in
others.

- Same traits may encourage a stronger cognitive focus that is narrow,

which enables effective conformation to social norms.
“Politeness is Useful.
Harmony is Precious”.

- Confucius

Other sayings:

"Behave toward everyone as if

receiving a great guest.”
"When anger rises, think of the
consequences."
5HTT: GENE CULTURE CO-EVOLUTION
HYPOTHESES

 For those in INDIVIDUALISTIC CULTURES, the same traits

will be disadvantageous to achieving cultural norms of self
expression, assertion of self interests and autonomy.

- Greater vigilance to negative information may make one hesitant to

express thoughts/feelings in social contexts, hence making it difficult to
maintain meaningful social relationships.

- Positive information biases on the other hand, can encourage creative

thinking, open-ness to novelty and risk taking.

- Hence positive biases encourages independent, assertive social

behavior and increased social connectedness in such societies.
“ To be yourself in a world that is
constantly trying to make you something
else is the greatest accomplishment.”

- Ralph Waldo Emerson

Other quotes:
“Do not go where the path may lead,
go instead where there is no path
…..and leave a trail.”
5HTT and SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS
 Emerging hypothesis and evidence now that S allele of 5HTT
Emerging
gene hypothesis
seems and evidence
to SENSITIZE peoplenow thatexperience
to ALL S allele of 5HTT gene
regardless
seems to SENSITIZE
of ‘good/bad’ valence. people to ALL experience regardless of
‘good/bad’ valence.

 Chiao/Blizinsky (2012) and May/Baldwin (2013) assert S allele

make people sensitive to SOCIAL EXPERIENCE in particular.
 Several studies have also shown that especially the S/S
variant seems to magnify both the positive and negative
effect of social connections. “DIFFERENTIAL SENSITIVITIES
HYPOTHESIS”
 5HTT and SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS
 In a study of depressive symptomatology, when S/S individuals had experienced
more positive than negative events over the last 6 months, they had the LOWEST
levels of depressive symptomatology in the sample (Taylor et al., 2006), indicating
that S/S individuals are more sensitive to positive life events as well as negative
ones.

 Subsequent research has shown that this relationship between life events and affect
for individuals with the S/S genotype was primarily driven by the SOCIAL events:
non-social events were not significantly related to affect (Way and Taylor, 2010).

 Other groups have found heightened sensitivity to positive social influences

amongst S- allele carriers as well, which has even been documented using
neurochemical measures (Manuck et al., 2004).

Thus, these results suggest that the 5-HTTLPR moderates sensitivity to social influence
regardless of its valence [that is, whether the experience is positive or negative].
 5HTT and SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS
 Because S/S individuals are more sensitive to the social realm, social support appears
to be more important for maintaining their well-being. In support of this claim, S/S
individuals exposed to a natural disaster (a hurricane) were at no higher risk for
depression than L/L individuals provided they perceived that they had good social
support.

 However, if S/S individuals exposed to this disaster perceived that they did not have
good social support they had a 4.5 times greater risk for depression. Similarly, a
randomized control trial designed to improve nurturant and involved parenting reduced
adolescent risky behavior, but only amongst those with the short allele!

 A similar differential sensitivity was seen among adolescents in foster care: If the S/S
individuals had a reliable mentor present in their life, they were at no higher risk for
depression than adolescents with the other genotypes. However, if they did not have
such support they were at a high risk for depression (Kaufman et al., 2004). Thus being
embedded in a richly interconnected social network, as is present in collectivistic
cultures, might be particularly important for maintaining the well-being of
short/short individuals.
5HTT and SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS
 This starts to explain the purported interplay of the S/S allele and a
Thiscollectivist
starts to explain theIfpurported
culture: interplay
S-allele people ofmore
get the S/S allele
out and a collectivist
of social support, a
culture: If S-allele people get more out of social support, a more supportive
more supportive culture could buffer them against depression, easing
culture could buffer them against depression, easing any selective pressure
any selective pressure against the gene.
against the gene.
Meanwhile
 Meanwhile the gene’s growing prevalence would make the culture increasingly
the gene’s growing prevalence would make the culture
supportive, since those who carry it might be more empathic.
increasingly supportive, since those who carry it might be more
empathic.
 Studies have shown, for instance, that S allele people more readily
recognize and react to others’ emotional states. In one still-
unpublished study — marriage partners with S/S alleles more
accurately read and predicted their spouses’s emotional states than
did people (sometimes those same partners) with L/L variants.
Aside: from 5HTT to OXYTOCIN across
cultures

 Heejung Kim (2010) from the University of California has

studied the effects of the ‘oxytocin receptor’ (OXTR) gene.
Oxytocin is involved in multiple emotions and social behaviors,
from trust to sexual arousal to empathy.
 Kim looked at a specific version of the OXTR gene, whose
carriers are allegedly more social and sensitive.
 HOWEVER this link between gene and behavior depends on
culture; it exists among American people, who tend to look for
support in troubled times, but not in Korean cultures, where
such support is less socially acceptable.
Aside: from 5HTT to OXYTOCIN across
cultures
 Many studies have shown that Koreans are less likely than Americans to
turn to their peer/social networks for support and they get less out of doing
so.

 They are more concerned about burdening their friends and straining their
relationships.

 The OXTR gene exerts its influence against the background of these
contrasting cultural conventions: Distressed Americans with one or more
copies of the G version were more likely to seek emotional support from
their friends, compared to those with two copies of the A version.

 For Koreans, the opposite was true – G carriers were less likely to look for
support among their peers in times of need. In both cases, the G carriers
were more sensitive to the social conventions of their own cultures, but
the differences between these conventions led to different behaviour.
“Obasute” (Old Woman Abandoned in the Hills)
In the depths of the mountains,
Who was it for the aged mother snapped
One twig after another?
Heedless of herself
She did so
For the sake of her son
Aside: from 5HTT to OXYTOCIN across
cultures

 Example of ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE: Kim only found this

pattern among people who were experiencing a lot of stress: In
the low stress group, she found that Americans were indeed
more likely to seek emotional support than Koreans, but their
OXTR gene had no bearing on their choices.
 Koreans and Americans differ not just in their cultures, but in their
genes (including many others beyond OXTR). To account for that,
Kim also worked with a small group of 32 Korean-Americans who
were born and raised in the US, but were genetically Korean. Kim
found that the link between OXTR and emotional support
among these volunteers was much closer to the culturally
similar Americans than the genetically similar Koreans.
More Evidence for 5HTT and SOCIAL
CONNECTIONS

 Kaufman and Gelernter (2004) researched 5HTT profiles in 57

abused, school aged children in foster homes and matched
this with their depression histories
 Maltreated children with S allele suffered mood disorders at
2x rate of abused kids with S/L or L/L variants, and of those
with S alleles without history of abuse
 However, those with ‘SOCIAL SUPPORT’ (defined narrowly
as having monthly contact with a trusted mentor/adult
outside home) ELIMINATED THE COMBINED RISK OF 5HTT
and ABUSE by 80%.
“Our default state is CONNECTION. To be unconnected…to feel
alone…is to endure a trial almost as noxious as regular beatings
and sharp neglect.” David Dobbs
New Equation: Gene x Environment x Culture.
From Genes to Psychology
 How did S allele first develop? Role of infectious
pathogens?
 Collective banding of multiple individuals protective
against pathogens, S allele carriers more likely to do so?
 Promotion and propagation of S-allele within these
collective societies
 Cultural development of rituals, codes of ethics, moral
values, hierarchical structure and child rearing practices
that maintain conformity to these norms?
 Possible emergence of SHAME BASED SOCIETIES?
Emile Durkheim’s
Suicide Typologies
1. EGO-ISTIC:
Suicide completed by people who are not
strongly supported by membership in a cohesive
social group, usually where there is excessive
INVIDUALISM.

2. ALTRUISTIC:
Suicide completed for the benefit of others or for
the community: may correlate with
COLLECTIVIST cultures (kamikaze, obasute etc)

3. ANOMIC:
Suicide committed by individuals living in
fragmented societies where moral norms are
confused, unclear, shattered (ie by war) or simply
not present.
From Genes to Psychology
 What about ATTACHMENT STYLES? S-allele predominant
societies and Anxious/Ambivalent attachments (Van Izjendoorn
et al 1995)
 However, individuals do not seek social support when distressed
to avoid distressing others: may have overall protective effects
on OTHERS, but those distressed will be then ‘isolated’ despite
presence of others. May perpetuate a superficial appearance of
avoidant/dismissive attachment pattern
 Hence shame and shame-based disorders, and even suicide,
may be a hidden epidemic. Next Module will focus on Cultural
Differences in SHAME.
Cultural differences in
emotions/values: Shame as
example
Different Valuations of Shame
“Sin hath the Devil for its father,
Shame for its companion, and
Death for its wages.” TJ Watson
(Founder of IBM)
“Men cannot live without Shame.
A sense of Shame is the beginning
of Integrity.” Mencius (Chinese
Philosopher)
Dominant Models of Shame and Guilt: Both Emotions occur when someone
has committed a transgression that results in being negatively evaluated by
others.

 SHAME:  GUILT:

• When people attribute their • When people attribute their

transgressions to their Global and transgressions to Transient actions or
Stable Self (“I AM bad”) states (“I DID a bad thing”)

• Typically involves being evaluated by • Involves being negatively evaluated by

Others (real or imagined): Hence
externally orientated (other
orientated)
• Is associated with the Fear of exposing
one’s defective self to others
• Maladaptive coping:
avoidance/withdrawal,
attack/contempt, dissociation
the Self (Internally orientated)
• Associated with Fear of not living up to
one’s own standards
• Generally adaptive coping: seeking
Reparative action: increases in self
efficacy, empathy and perspective
taking.
Shame authors to be aware of: Helen Block
Lewis, June Tangey and Brene Brown
ASSUMPTIONS that dominant models
make about Shame and Guilt

1. That there is a Stable Self than can be differentiated

from actions
2. That Internal orientation can be distinguished from
External, and that internal is more powerful and
genuine
3. “Independent Self Construal” (Kitayama and Markus):
that the self is bounded, separate from others and is
defined by stable characteristics
4. That being negatively evaluated by others is ‘bad’
and should be ‘actively avoided’.
Self and Shame: Examples from Japan

“A Japanese finds his world clearly divided into three categories,

sempai (seniors), kohai (juniors) and doryo.

Doryo meaning ‘one’s colleagues’, refers only to those with the same
rank.” When this relationship is established even early in a person’s
career, for example, it remains unchanged for life.”
 C Nakane

“ Decisions a Japanese man makes…tends not to be made on the

basis of universal or abstract principles, but rather in the basis of
his ANTICIPATION of the FEELINGS OF OTHERS”.
Japanese Language Usage that
supports the Devaluation of a ‘Self’

 Speakers do not complete sentences…left open ended for

the listener to complete
 First/Second person often omitted: subject can be implied
but sentences can completely lack subject, which is
determined according to context. Hence it is not thought
necessary to mention the INDIVIDUAL/independent performer
of actions as an objective being.
 Explicit, carefully reasoned statements are shunned in favor
of indirectness and ambiguity: designed not to communicate
ideas but to feel out the other’s mood/attitudes. (“Aimai”)
 “ Aren’t you Going?”……”Yes…..am not”
 Symbiosis between mother and child
(son) promoted culturally

 Academic performance expectations, overprotecting

and over-involvement are frequent, as they are held as
IDEALS.
 “The ego ideal is fueled by the internalization of
MATERNAL EXPECTATIONS, with deep feelings of
obligation to a mother who has been devoting and
sacrificing to her children, with profound shame when
not fulfilling maternal values”.
 Intimate, Symbiotic tie between mother and (especially
male) child perpetuates focus on achievement and
hence predisposes to SHAME.
 ‘AJASE COMPLEX’ and (In India) ‘GANESHA COMPLEX’
 ‘AMAE’ and the valuation of
Dependency

 Amae: “to depend on an presume upon anothers’

benevolence”

 Term originates from psychiatrist Dr Takeo Doi, who

sees Amae as an affirmative attitude toward
dependency: a culturally sanctioned denial of the fact
of separation from the mother.

 Contributes to ‘Kodawari ‘observed in clinical

encounters: patients not appreciating the importance of
their existence apart from their desire to amae. Hence
they are hypersensitive to ‘minor issues’, feel they are
not accepted by others and results from the unsatisfied
desire to amae.

 “Omoiyari’ in hierarchical relationships

 Shame and the Japanese Sense of Self

 Books of Shingaku (popular ethics): encourages people to have ‘no-

self’, and to live in the service of others.
 “The concept of no-self is identical to the spirit of service above
self, EVERY spontaneous impulse is rejected as selfishness”. Hiroshi
Minami
 “Onion Self”: ‘When you peel all the layers off, you get down to
NOTHING. Simply to ask what they are feeling...usually elicits no
response.”
 What kind of Self, then, can one living in a collectivist society
have?
Shame and the Japanese Sense of Self

 Concept of the ‘WE-SELF’ (Dr A Collins and Dr P Desai).

 Refers to ‘Self’ that is highly relational in different social contexts,
leading to dependency and interdependency
 ‘We-self esteem’ must be constantly enhanced through ongoing
mirroring and idealizing relationships THROUGHOUT LIFE, possess a
conscience that is particularly attuned to reciprocities in varying
contexts, and containment of ambivalence and anger.
 We-self is highly empathic to others and receptive to norms, is highly
emotionally enmeshed but maintains a very private self, with a major
dimension to reflect well on the family/group by high performance.
We-self can extend to family, school, workplace and society as a
whole.
 Different manifestations of Clinical
Disorders
 “SHINKEISHITSU” personality:

Person unconsciously fears that the other will sense and strongly disapprove of his intense
inner competitiveness, as he unconsciously does so himself, from that other part of his
ego ideal that so emphasizes harmony with others”. (frequent in Oldest or Only sons)
 “TAIJIN KYOFUSHO” (Fear of Interpersonal Relations):

Form of social anxiety whereby sufferer is fearful of embarrassing not themselves, but
OTHERS, with their presence. 4 types:

1. Sekimen-kyofu – the phobia of blushing

2. Shubo-kyofu – the phobia of a body deformity that would be offensive to others

3. Jikoshisen-kyofu – the phobia of eye contact

4. Jikoshu-kyofu – the phobia of bodily odor that would be offensive to others

 Collectivist Cultures: Differing views of
Shame, even The Self

 China, Japan, Korea: Interdependent concept of Self, with a sense of

• China, Japan, Korea: Interdependent concept of Self, with a sense of self in
self in terms of their Connection with Others.
terms of their Connection with Others.
 Hence, External influences (OTHERS thoughts, feelings and actions)
• Hence, External influences (OTHERS thoughts, feelings and actions) are just
areif just
as, as, if not
not more, more,than
important important than internal ones
internal ones

• Selves
Selvesininthese
these cultures
cultures and and contextually
contextually and situationally
and situationally dependent, and
dependent,
situational and situational
changes in concept ofchanges in concept
self are viewed of selfand
as normative areexpected
viewed as
normative and expected
• Few (if any) aspects of the Self are seen as immutable
 Few (if any) aspects of the Self are seen as immutable
• ‘Feeling bad’ about the self is not only normal, but to a degree expected as it
 serves the larger goal of Self-Improvement.
‘Feeling bad’ about the self is not only normal, but to a degree
expected as it serves the larger goal of Self-Improvement.
Collectivist Cultures: Shame and Guilt?

 Distinction between Shame and Guilt may apply less in cultures that
promote interdependent selves.
 Much less emphasis placed on having ‘Internal’ orientation in
collectivist cultures, as people do not view themselves apart from their
actions, relationships with others and context.
 Wikan (1984):Shame in collectivist cultures is associated with temporary
and specific actions (rather than stable/global characteristics)
 Bedford (2004): Study of Taiwanese subjects: 3 subtypes of ‘guilt’ and 4
subtypes of ‘shame’ that are not distinguished in English: some of
these ‘shame’ subtypes did not involve perceived judgments of others,
and many of these prompted increases in pro-social behaviours.
 Positive Valuation of Shame

 Shame in Chinese cultures is “the ability to take delight in the performance of one’s duty”
(David Jordan)

 Kitayama, Markus et al 1997: Japanese view FAILURE EVENTS that induce self criticism
as more relevant to self-esteem that did Americans, who viewed SUCCESS EVENTS
that enhanced their self-views as more relevant.

 Menon and Schweder (1994): Americans viewed Happiness as most different from
Shame and Anger, while Hindu Indians viewed Anger as most different from Happiness
and Shame, suggesting that Hindu Indians more positively viewed shame.

 Rozin (2003): replicated above, and further found that:

 Americans viewed Shame and Anger as more similar as both are viewed as negatively
valenced.

 Hindu Indians viewed Shame and Happiness as more similar as both are viewed as
socially constructive.
 Positive Valuation of Shame

 Fung at al 2003: Chinese parents more likely to use Shaming

techniques in their educational strategies, and readily disclose
childrens’ transgressions to strangers to induce shame/ socialise
children to ‘behave properly’.
 Chinese children hence learn the word ‘Shame’ at a much earlier
age.
 Russell and Yik 1996: Shame is hyper-cognized in Chinese culture:
at least 83 shame related terms in Chinese dictionary, up to 113!
 Tinsley/Weldon 2003: Chinese managers more likely than US
counterparts to use shame to resolve conflicts.
Some examples of “Parental punishment
facilitators” or “Shame Inducers?”
 Elicitors of Shame
In collectivist cultures, shame/guilt may be elicited more by the actions of the
OTHER.

 Stipek 1998: Chinese (compared to Americans) more likely to report feeling

ashamed in response to family members’ transgressions

 Tsai 2006: Hmong Americans more likely to describe actions committed by

others in describing past shame episodes in their lives

 Tsai 1996: Members of collectivist cultures more likely to experience shame in

presence of others as they are more attentive to others. RELATIONSHIP
between the ashamed person and the people with who he/she is ashamed is
an important facet of experience.

Early research shows that Shame causes less disruption and more prosocial
behaviours in such cultures
Collectivism, shame leading
to different Psychoanalytic
Models
Different Psychoanalytic Models:
OEDIPUS COMPLEX

In the Oedipus myth, a son kills his father and

marries his mother; all acts done while Oedipus
was in a state of self-ignorance.

In the Freudian interpretation, a man must

achieve self awareness by recognizing his
father as authority, mother as a tabooed object
of desire, and himself as a man who must go
outside of the family unit to engage in
courtship.

That Oedipus so abysmally failed in this

recognition is marked in the blindness he
inflicts upon himself.
 Different Psychoanalytic Models:
JAPAN’s AJASE COMPLEX
In the Ajase myth, it is the mother who first commits a Heisaku Kosawa: Japan’s
dubious act, by being impregnated by the spirit of a sage she first psychoanalyst
selfishly murdered to keep the affections of her husband. She
then attempts to kill her infant son due to fear of the spirits’
curse.

Failing this, she becomes a loving and dutiful mother. Ajase,

her son, on the verge of manhood, discovers her mother’s
past infanticide attempt, and he too fails in his rage driven
attempts to kill his mother.

In summary, mother and son forgive each other and remain

entwined in a bond of mutual forgiveness.

In Kosawa’s interpretation, in order to become a man, the

son must recognize mother as human rather than ideal, and
must accept the mutuality of relationships rather than
narcissitically demand full attention.(pathological
AMAE/KODAWARI)
Comparison of culture-based
differences in Psychoanalytic Models
OEDIPAL MYTH
 Role of Mother is passive
 The Father’s role is central.
 Based on a clearly defined set of
rules that operate on the threat
of violence
 To achieve manhood the boy
must accept the exclusive nature
of his parents’ sexual bond, and
leave both to establish his own
independence.
AJASE MYTH
 Mother’s role is highly active and
pivotal
 Father is almost absent, barely
features in boy’s transition to
manhood
 Stresses the importance of
interpersonal relationships that
depend on mutual forgiveness and
empathy
 Boy needs to remain bonded to his
parents, especially mother, but with
newly mature attitude of mutual
respect.
Some practical questions to ask/reflect
on during cross cultural assessments

1. Situational determinants: Are members of different cultural

groups alike or different in the antecedent conditions of the world (e.g.,
a public display of success, exposure of the sexual parts of the body)
that elicit a particular emotional response.
2. Self-Appraisal features: Are members of different cultural groups
alike or different in the perceived implications of the emotional
response for their personal identity, agency, social standing and self-
regard (e.g., status loss, goal-blockage).
3. Somatic phenomenology: Are members of different cultural
groups alike or different in their particular bodily feelings (e.g., muscle
tension, shortness of breath) when experiencing the particular
emotional state. These are physically localized feelings of the body.
Some practical questions to ask/reflect
on during cross cultural assessments

4. Affective phenomenology: Are members of different

cultural groups alike or different in their affective feelings (e.g.,
feelings of emptiness, agitation, contractedness) when
experiencing the emotional state. These are existential feelings
of the self or the “soul”.

5. Social appraisal: Are members of different cultural groups

alike or different in the extent to which displaying one’s
emotional state has been socially baptized a vice or virtue, a sign
of sickness or health, a signal of deviance or normalcy.
Some practical questions to ask/reflect
on during cross cultural assessments

6. Self-management: Are members of different cultural groups

alike or different in the plans for self-management (e.g., to withdraw,
to hide, to apologize, to confess) that are activated as part of an
action routine to cope with somatic and affective feelings and with the
self-appraisals that are associated with the emotional state.

7. Communication: Are members of different cultural groups

alike or different in their iconic or symbolic vehicles (e.g., facial
expressions, voice quality, posture, self-descriptions) for expressing
the whole package of interconnected episodic components (1-6
above)?