Seneca College Pathophysiology HDP 301 Immune System Recall the structures of the immune system: 1. Skin and mucous membranes
2. Monocytes and macrophages
3. Lymphoid system (spleen, thymus gland,
lymph nodes) 4. Bone marrow
*WBCs (leukocytes) mediate inflammation and
immunity. WBCs are attracted to pathogens and foreign molecules, then activated to neutralize or destroy them Immune System continued The immune system is usually categorized into two defense types: 1. Innate – no previous exposure to pathogen/antigen; natural killer (NK) cells and phagocytic cells (neutrophils and macrophages) are able to respond to infection by a variety of antigens 2. Specific – more effective on 2nd exposure to an antigen; recognize specific antigens; B cells and T cells responsible for this type of immunity Review these defense systems and immune system structure using your text book Dendritic Cells (DC) DCs are phagocytes found all over the body but especially in the skin and mucous membranes. They “recognize” non-self cells with their pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and become antigen-presenting cells (APCs) when they display new markers on their cell membranes for presentation to Helper T cells in lymph nodes to link the innate immune system with the adaptive one. Inflammation Inflammation occurs when cells are injured no matter the cause; protective mechanism and begins healing process Purpose of Inflammation: 1. To neutralize/destroy harmful invading agents 2. To limit the spread of harmful agents to other organs 3. To prepare damaged tissue for repair Signs of Inflammation 1. Redness 2. Swelling
3. Heat
4. Pain
5. Loss of function
“-itis” is used to describe inflammation ex.
Tendonitis, appendicitis etc. *Infection is usually accompanied by inflammation; but inflammation is not always caused by infection Inflammation
Inflammation can be caused by exogenous
sources (surgery, trauma, burns etc) or endogenous sources (ex. tissue ischemia from MI) Acute inflammation is short in duration, lasts <2 weeks; chronic inflammation is usually widespread, lasts longer and can result in scar tissue and/or deformity Process of Inflammation Regardless of the cause, the inflammatory response includes the same events: 1. Increased vascular permeability
2. Recruitment and emigration of leukocytes
3. Phagocytosis of antigens and debris
*Note, immediately after an injury, precapillary
arterioles around the injury vasoconstrict briefly (possible mechanism to reduce blood loss) Inflammation 1. Increased Vascular Permeability Vasodilation is caused by the release of chemical mediators (histamine, prostaglandins, bradykinin and leukotrienes) from mast cells at the injured area. These chemicals cause vasodilation more blood flow to the area increased hydrostatic pressure increased capillary permeability More fluid is pushed out of blood vessels into surrounding tissues local swelling The increased build-up of blood and fluid in the injured area contributes to the redness, pain, heat and swelling 1. Increased Vascular Permeability Histamine is a strong vasodilator – if released in high amounts significant reductions in BP Prostaglandins and leukotrienes contribute to vasodilation, increased permeability and pain by enhancing the sensitivity of pain receptors The fluid that accumulates during inflammation is called “exudate” 1. Increased Vascular Permeability In the early phases of inflammation, platelets move into the site and release fibronectin to form a meshwork/net/trap, as well as stimulating clotting to help reduce bleeding Platelets release growth factor to stimulate cell proliferation Blood begins to coagulate and development of fibrin clot occurs (usually within minutes) Fibrin also develops in lymph vessels to “wall off” the area of injury (reduces spread of toxins) 2. Emigration of Leukocytes As blood travels to the injured area, neutrophils stick to receptors called selectins along the injured capillary wall Another group of receptors called integrins help neutrophils stick and roll along the capillary endothelial surface Chemokines are molecules that enhance the binding affinity of integrins so that neutrophils can attach firmly to vessel walls Once a neutrophil arrives at the area of injury, it can squeeze through the spaces between endothelial cells and “emigrate” to the inflamed tissue. This process is called diapedesis (di- a –pe – dee –sis). Emigration 2. Emigration Chemotaxis – the process by which neutrophils are attracted to inflamed tissue Neutrophils are guided to damaged tissue by chemicals (bacterial toxins, degenerative products etc.) Neutrophils immediately begin phagocytosis and production of collagenase to break down dead tissue Monocytes, eosinophils and NK cells also arrive at the area to contribute to inflammation and to destroy infected tissues. Diapedesis
Image from: Gordon, Joe Lecture Notes
3. Phagocytosis Neutrophils and monocytes (macrophages) begin the process of phagocytosis at the injured tissue Both cells produce enzymes that digest proteins; lysozymes, neutral proteases, collagenase, elastase, and acid hydrolases. Once a neutrophil leaves blood circulation to fight an infection, it will eventually stop working and die at the site Pus may form at the injury site – a collection of dead neutrophils, bacteria, and cellular debris Macrophages last longer than neutrophils and thus have the role of removing old neutrophils and preparing the site for healing Acute Inflammation Acute inflammation can cause tissue damage; degradative enzymes and oxidative agents can attack local tissues Inflammatory inactivators called “α- antiprotease” inhibit the destructive proteases released from activated neutrophils They are made in the liver and circulate continuously in the bloodstream Individuals with antiprotease deficiencies are at risk for inflammatory tissue destruction Immune Response Alterations in Immune Function
Remember: the purpose of the immune
system is to defend the body against invasion or infection by foreign substances called antigens Immune disorders are divided into 2 categories: 1. Excessive Immune Response (autoimmune and hypersensitivity) 2. Deficient Immune Response Excessive Immune Responses Immune system is hyperfunctioning Autoimmunity- immune system attacks its own tissue; recognizes a persons’ own cells as foreign and mounts an immune response that injures self tissues Causes are largely unknown Hypersensitivity - normal immune response that is inappropriately triggered/excessive/produces undesirable effects on the body Many autoimmune reactions toward self-tissues are mediated through hypersensitivity mechanisms; therefore, many autoimmune diseases are also considered hypersensitivity reactions. Treatments for autoimmunity Immunosuppressive therapy is most often used individualized depending on disease expression Corticosteroids and cytotoxins inhibit excessive immune responses, but also limit the positive and protective functions of the immune system Corticosteroids decrease the number of lymphocytes and alter their function; also decrease antibody formation Cytotoxins, such as methotrexate, kill actively proliferating lymphocytes (reduces the number of white blood cells) Hypersensitivity
There are 4 types of hypersensitivity:
1. Type I – immediate allergic or anaphylactic reaction; mediated by mast cells vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, hypotension, bronchoconstriction, hives, increased mucus secretion, itching (pruritis) -usually occurs 15-30mins after exposure to antigen/allergen Type I
Examples are seasonal allergic rhinitis,
eczema, bee stings, peanut allergic reactions, food allergies Treatments – antihistamines, Epinephrine (beta-adrenergic) to reduce bronchospasm and bronchoconstriction, corticosteroids to decrease inflammation, anticholinergics allow bronchodilation Hypersensitivity 2. Type II – tissue-specific, antibodies that attack antigens on the surface of specific cells; immediate reaction within 15-30mins after exposure -an example is a blood transfusion reaction person with blood type A receives blood type B antibodies will attack and destroy large numbers of red blood cells -fever, chills, flushing, tachycardia, hypotension, nausea, anxiety, and can progress to anaphylaxis, shock and death. Hypersensitivity
3. Type III – immune complex reaction; failure
of the immune and phagocytic systems to effectively remove antigen-antibody immune complexes from tissues long-lasting and ongoing inflammatory reaction -caused by persistent low-grade infections or autoimmune production of antibodies (production of antibodies against red blood cells for example) Hypersensitivity
4. Type IV – delayed hypersensitivity, T-cells
react with altered or foreign cells and initiate inflammation; no antibody involvement Reaction is slow to develop, beginning 24 hours after exposure and lasting up to 14 days Most common: contact hypersensitivity; immune or inflammatory response to chemicals, ointments, clothing, cosmetics, dyes and adhesives Deficient Immune Responses Result from a functional decrease in one or more components of the immune system Two types: 1. Primary Immunodeficiency Disorders (PID) – congenital (abnormal development or maturation of immune cells) or acquired such as HIV/AIDS; directly affect immune cell function 2. Secondary Immunodeficiency Disorders – caused by non-immune system disorders/treatments such as poor nutrition, stress or drugs, that secondarily suppress immune function UNDERSTANDING PAIN Pain Pain is difficult to define and assess because it is largely a subjective experience Physiological mechanisms involved in pain are called nociception. (no-sis-cep- tion) 4 stages of nociception: 1. Transduction 2. Transmission 3. Perception 4. Modulation Nociception: Transduction Transduction is the process of converting painful stimuli to neuronal action potentials at the sensory receptor. Pain receptors, nociceptors, in the periphery are stimulated by noxious stimuli Nociceptors are found in the skin, muscle, connective tissue, circulatory system and in abdominal, pelvic and thoracic organs Nociceptors convert negative stimuli into action potentials that progress to the spinal cord and brain Transduction
Nociceptors can be stimulated by damage to
nerve endings, or by the release of chemicals at the injury site Chemicals can be released as a result of injury or inflammatory response; pain chemicals include K+, H+, lactate, histamine, serotonin, bradykinins, and prostaglandins Chemicals depolarize the membrane potential of the nociceptor to fire a pain signal NSAIDs Prostaglandin inhibitors such as aspirin and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are commonly used to manage pain Prostaglandins are formed when cells are damaged. Phospholipase A breaks down cell membrane phospholipids into arachidonic acid Arachidonic acid is then converted to prostaglandins by the enzyme cyclo-oxygenase Prostaglandins increase the sensitivity of nociceptors pain is felt faster and easier NSAIDs inhibit the action of cyclooxygenase = no prostaglandin production!! Transmission Transmission is the movement of action potentials along sensory neurons from peripheral receptors to the spinal cord and centrally to the brain (collectively the CNS) Primary sensory fibers involved in transmission are A-delta fibers (Aδ) and C fibers Aδ fibers are larger, myelinated, carry pain info faster and represent the initial response to injury Aδ fibers carry sharp, stinging, highly localized and acute pain signals Transmission
C fibers are smaller, unmyelinated and
transmit pain slowly Pain from these fibers is poorly localized, feels dull and achy and lasts longer C fibers typically carry pain info to areas of the brain that evoke emotional responses (displeasure, anxiety) Transmission Sensory afferent pain fibers enter the spinal cord by posterior nerve roots; cell bodies of pain neurons are in the dorsal root ganglion In the dorsal horn , collateral branches spread up and down the spinal cord by the Tract of Lissauer result in reflex postural adjustments when a painful body part is suddenly withdrawn from the stimulus Transmission Sensory afferent fibers synapse with interneurons, anterior motor neurons, and sympathetic preganglionic neurons in specific regions of the spinal cord Neurotransmitters and neuropeptides are released at this synapse; Substance P, glutamate, GABA, cholecystokinin These neurotransmitters bind to the next neuron in the pathway new action potential Transmission to brain Pain signals transmitted by spinal interneurons are then conducted to the brain via ascending spinal pathways Anterolateral tract – the major pathway for pain signal transmission to brain; travels up the anterolateral portion of the spinal cord white matter Also called the “spinothalamic tract Signals cross to the opposite side of the spinal cord and carry signals up the contralateral side of the cord Nociceptor information from the left side of the body travels up the right anterolateral tract and vice versa. Anterolateral tract Two divisions: 1. Neospinothalamic division – Aδ fibers travel up this tract to the thalamus; signals reach brain quickly, provide brain with location of pain, no real emotional connection 2. Paleospinothalamic division – C fibers travel up this tract slowly and projects to widespread brain areas; lots of emotional response; pain lasts for a long time *C fibers are sent to the thalamus, but also the reticular formation, mesencephalon (midbrain), cerebral cortex, limbic system and basal ganglia. Pain identification The brain can localize pain sensation because nociceptor pathways lead to specific anatomical regions in the cord and somatosensory cortex Sensory Dermatome – each spinal nerve contains the nociceptor fibers for a particular area of the body surface If a certain nerve is injured/pinched, pain will follow a typical pattern Perception Perception occurs when the brain receives pain signals and interprets them as ‘painful’ Is the result of neural processing of pain awareness and interpretation of the meaning of the sensation Pain is influenced by attention, distraction, anxiety, fear, fatigue, previous experience and expectations. Primary somatosensory cortex and association region, frontal lobe and limbic structures all participate in pain processing Perception of pain
“pain threshold” – the level of painful
stimulation required to be perceived; very similar in everyone “pain tolerance” – the degree of pain that one is willing to bear before seeking relief; varies widely among individuals “pain expression” – the way in which the pain experience is communicated to others; ex. Facial grimacing, crying, moaning etc. Modulation Modulation is the complex mechanism whereby synaptic transmission of pain signals is altered Modulation occurs at multiple sites along the pathway Rubbing, shaking, pressing are attempts to decrease the perception of painful stimuli The “gate control theory” suggests that impulses carried by large myelinated cutaneous fibers can ‘close the gate’ on nociceptor impulse pain signals would be blocked in the spinal cord. Modulation Descending pathways from the brain, more specifically from the brainstem nucleus called “raphe magnus”, can project to the dorsal horn and inhibit transmission of pain signals Opioids such as endorphins and opioid drugs like morphine produce analgesic effects by inhibiting Substance P release from nociceptor neurons Nociceptive inhibition During periods of pain and stress, the body can modulate pain Serotonin, endorphins and norepinephrine all produce analgesic effects “stress-induced analgesia” – brain secretes endogenous opioids Binding of the endogenous opioids, such as enkephalin, inhibit the release of substance P at the synapse, and thus block the transmission of pain Pain Transmission Acute vs. Chronic pain Acute pain – resolves Chronic pain – lasts longer when tissue injury heals, than several months beyond usually less than 3 months, expected healing time, not signs and symptoms typical associated with SNS activity for stimulation of SNS body becomes (tachycardia, increase accustomed to pain and breathing rate etc) desensitized to noxious input Short term therapy with Symptoms are often nonopioid or opioid drugs is psychological (lack of sleep, helpful disruption of routine, irritability etc. Most common causes of acute pain is headache Common chronic pain and/or migraines syndrome is fibromyalgia collection of symptoms without a clear physiologic cause Other types of pain Cancer-related pain – subcategory of chronic pain but may involve acute pain episodes - Pain is a result of infiltration of organs, compression of
structures by tumor, or as a result of treatment that
damage tissues Neuropathic pain – complex, disabling chronic pain that results from damaged or dysfunctional nerves (not stimulation of pain receptors) - Can result from surgery, elevated blood glucose, viral infection, trauma and is characterized by constant aching sensations with bursts of burning or shock-like pain Other types of pain
Ischemic pain – resulting from sudden or
profound loss of blood flow to the tissues in a particular body part (common in MI) -lowered perfusion tissue hypoxia and injury release of inflammatory and pain- producing chemicals -aching, burning or prickling pain until blood flow is improved Referred Pain – pain that is perceived in an area other than the site of the injury Common in MI pain is often felt in the jaw or left arm Often pain is referred to other structures in the same sensory dermatome Sometimes the brain cannot differentiate between two sources of pain Week 4