Imperfections in the Atomic

and Ionic Arrangements

1
 Defects
Up to now we have considered perfect crystals, i.e.
crystals with perfect periodic arrangements.
Most “good” crystals show very little departure from
this idea, e.g. silicon single crystals can be grown
without defects over a range of several mm
This sounds small but is about 10 million unit cells!
However, defects are very important in processing and
for optical and electrical properties.
 Imperfections in Solids

• Solidification- result of casting of molten material

– 2 steps
• Nuclei form
• Nuclei grow to form crystals – grain structure
• Start with a molten material – all liquid

nuclei crystals growing grain structure

liquid Adapted from Fig.4.14 (b), Callister 7e.

• Crystals grow until they meet each other

Chapter 4 - 3
 Polycrystalline Materials

Grain Boundaries
• regions between crystals
• transition from lattice of one
region to that of the other
• slightly disordered
• low density in grain
boundaries
– high mobility
– high diffusivity
– high chemical reactivity

Adapted from Fig. 4.7, Callister 7e.

Chapter 4 - 4
 Objectives
• Introduce the three basic types of
imperfections: point defects, line defects (or
dislocations), and surface defects.
• Explore the nature and effects of different
types of defects.

5
 Chapter Outline
• Point Defects
• Other Point Defects
• Dislocations
• Observing Dislocations
• Significance of Dislocations
• Schmid’s Law
• Influence of Crystal Structure
• Surface Defects
• Importance of Defects

6
 IMPERFECTIONS IN CRYSTALS
• Crystal- solid composed of atoms arranged , similar in
three directions
• IDEAL CRYSTAL- arrangement perfectly regular &
continuous- PERFECT
• REAL CRYSTALS -(cast, welded etc.)- NOT PERFECT
• Lattice distortion, imperfections, irregularities, defects
present
• Computed yield stress and real yield stress different
• Also, many physical and mechanical properties affected
by imperfections

7
Introduction
• The "right" atoms in "wrong"
places.

• "Wrong" atoms in "right" or

"wrong" places.

• Missing atoms.
 CLASSIFICATION OF
IMPERFECTIONS/ DEFECTS
FOUR MAIN DIVISIONS
POINT LINE SURFACE VOLUME
DEFECTS DEFECTS (PLANAR, DEFECTS
INTERFACIAL, GRAIN

BOUNDARIES)
DEFECTS
•Vacancies •Edge •Grain Boundaries •Cracks
•Interstitials •Tilt Boundaries
•Impurities •Screw •Twin Boundaries •Stacking
•Electronic faults

10
 Point Defects

• Point defects - Imperfections, such as vacancies, that are

located typically at one (in some cases a few) sites in the
crystal.
• Extended defects - Defects that involve several atoms/ions
and thus occur over a finite volume of the crystalline material
(e.g., dislocations, stacking faults, etc.).
• Vacancy - An atom or an ion missing from its regular
crystallographic site.
• Interstitial defect - A point defect produced when an atom is
placed into the crystal at a site that is normally not a lattice
point.
• Substitutional defect - A point defect produced when an
atom is removed from a regular lattice point and replaced
with a different atom, usually of a different size.

12
POINT DEFECTS
 VACANCIES
An unoccupied atom position within a crystal lattice
- empty atom sites
Lattice vacancies are a stable feature of metals at all
temperatures above absolute zero
Heat treatment processes involve transport of atoms
through lattice with the help of vacancies
Vacancies- lead to increase in randomness of
structure
Vacancies- due to improper packing /thermal
vibrations at high temps.
14
Vacancy:

Tensile Stress
Fields ?
 vacant atomic sites in a structure

Vacancy

distortion
of planes
 Substitutional Impurity:

Compressive Tensile Stress

stress fields Fields
Interstitial Impurity

Relative
size

Compressive
Stress
Fields
 POINT DEFECTS
• ONE WHICH IS COMPLETELY LOCAL IN ITS EFFECTS
eg: VACANT LATTICE SITE
• POINT DEFECT IF INTRODUCED- INCREASES INTERNAL ENERGY
• No. of defects (nd ) at equilibrium at a certain temperature

nd = N (e –Ed/kT)

• N = total no. of atomic sites/cubic metre or per mole

• E
d = Energy of activation necessary to form the defect
• k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 X 10-23 J/atom-K (8.62 X 10-5eV/atom-K)
• T = absolute temperature

• Possible point defects are:

» Vacancies
» Interstitials
» Impurities
» Electronic defects

19
 Other Point Defects

 Interstitialcy - A point defect caused when a ‘‘normal’’

atom occupies an interstitial site in the crystal.
 Frenkel defect - A pair of point defects produced when
an ion moves to create an interstitial site, leaving behind
a vacancy.
 Schottky defect - A point defect in ionically bonded
materials. In order to maintain a neutral charge, a
stoichiometric number of cation and anion vacancies
must form.
 KrÖger-Vink notation - A system used to indicate point
defects in materials. The main body of the notation
indicates the type of defect or the element involved.

20
 Frenkel imperfection
• vacancy + interstitial site
Schottky imperfection
 Frenkel
and
Schottky
defects
 (c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning
Figure 1. Point defects: (a) vacancy, (b) interstitial atom, (c) small
substitutional atom, (d) large substitutional atom, (e) Frenkel defect,
(f) Schottky defect. All of these defects disrupt the perfect
arrangement of the surrounding atoms.
24
25
 ELECTRONIC DEFECTS
• Result of errors in charge distribution
in solids
• These defects free to move in crystal
under the influence of electric field
• Vacancy or interstitial impurity may
produce excess/deficit of +ve /-ve
charges
• Eg: ZnO- excess of interstitial zinc ions
26
Learning
(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson

When a divalent cation replaces a monovalent cation, a

second monovalent cation must also be removed, creating
a vacancy.

27
Electronic Defects
 Example:1
The Effect of Temperature on
Vacancy Concentrations

Calculate the concentration of vacancies in copper at room

temperature (25oC). What temperature will be needed to heat
treat copper such that the concentration of vacancies produced
will be 1000 times more than the equilibrium concentration of
vacancies at room temperature? Assume that 20,000 cal are
required to produce a mole of vacancies in copper.
SOLUTION
The lattice parameter of FCC copper is 0.36151 nm. The basis
is 1, therefore, the number of copper atoms, or lattice points,
per cm3 is:
4 atoms/cell 22 3
n  8 3
 8.47  10 copper atoms/cm
(3.6151  10 cm)
29
SOLUTION (Continued)

At room temperature, T = 25 + 273 = 298 K:

 Q 
n  n exp 
 RT 
 cal 
  20,000 
 22 atoms  mol
  8.47  10 3 
. exp 
cm   1.987 cal

  298K 
 mol  K 
8 3
 1.815  10 vacancies/cm
We could do this by heating the copper to a temperature at
which this number of vacancies forms:
11  Q 
n  1.815  10  n exp 
 RT 
 (8.47  10 22 ) exp(20,000 /(1.987  T )), T  102 o C
30
 Example 2:
Vacancy Concentrations in Iron

Determine the number of vacancies needed for a BCC iron

crystal to have a density of 7.87 g/cm3. The lattice parameter
of the iron is 2.866  10-8 cm.
Example 2 SOLUTION
The expected theoretical density of iron can be calculated from
the lattice parameter and the atomic mass.
# atoms/unit cell Atomic weight (g/mol)

 nA
Volume/unit cell Vc N A Avogadro's number
(cm 3 /unit cell) (6.023 x 10 23 atoms/mol)

31
SOLUTION (Continued)

Let’s calculate the number of iron atoms and vacancies

that would be present in each unit cell for the required
density of 7.87 g/cm3:

Or, there should be 2.00 – 1.9971 = 0.0029 vacancies

per unit cell. The number of vacancies per cm3 is:

32
Burgers Vector

If the dislocation was not present, then atom

at A would be at A’
We define a vector B which shows the
displacement of A due to the dislocation.
B is known as the Burgers’ Vector.
For an edge dislocation, the Burgers’ vector is
perpendicular to the dislocation
Burger’s circuit
Burger’s circuit
(a) When a shear stress is applied to the dislocation in (a), the atoms
are displaced, causing the dislocation to move one Burgers vector in
the slip direction (b). Continued movement of the dislocation
eventually creates a step (c), and the crystal is deformed. (Adapted
from A.G. Guy, Essentials of Materials Science, McGraw-Hill, 1976.)
(b) Motion of caterpillar is analogous to the motion of a dislocation.
42
43
 Observing Dislocations

 Etch pits - Tiny holes created at areas where

dislocations meet the surface. These are used
to examine the presence and number density
of dislocations.
 Slip line - A visible line produced at the surface
of a metallic material by the presence of
several thousand dislocations.
 Slip band - Collection of many slip lines, often
easily visible.

44
(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

A sketch illustrating dislocations, slip planes, and etch pit

locations. (Source: Adapted from Physical Metallurgy Principles, Third
Edition, by R.E. Reed-Hill and R. Abbaschian, p. 92, Figs. 7 and 8. Copyright
(c) 1992 Brooks/Cole Thomson Learning. Adapted by permission.)

45
Figure 12 Optical image of etch pits in silicon
carbide (SiC). The etch pits correspond to
intersection points of pure edge dislocations with
Burgers vector a/3 1 1 20 and the dislocation line
direction along [0001] (perpendicular to the
etched surface). Lines of etch pits represent low
angle grain boundaries (Courtesy of Dr. Marek
Skowronski, Carnegie Mellon University.)
46
Learning
(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson

Learning
(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson
(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

Electron photomicrographs of dislocations in Ti3Al: (a)

Dislocation pileups (x26,500). (b) Micrograph at x 100
showing slip lines and grain boundaries in AI. (c) Schematic
of slip bands development.
47
 Significance of Dislocations

 Plastic deformation refers to irreversible

deformation or change in shape that occurs
when the force or stress that caused it is
removed.
 Elastic deformation - Deformation that is fully
recovered when the stress causing it is
removed.
 Dislocation density - The total length of
dislocation line per cubic centimeter in a
material.

48
 Dislocation Motion
Dislocations & plastic deformation
• Cubic & hexagonal metals - plastic deformation by
plastic shear or slip where one plane of atoms slides
over adjacent plane by defect motion (dislocations).

• If dislocations don't move, Adapted from Fig. 7.1,

Callister 7e.
deformation doesn't occur! Chapter 7 - 49
 Dislocation Motion
• Dislocation moves along slip plane in slip direction
perpendicular to dislocation line
• Slip direction same direction as Burgers vector
Edge dislocation

Adapted from Fig. 7.2,

Callister 7e.

Screw dislocation

Chapter 7 - 50
 Deformation Mechanisms
Slip System
– Slip plane - plane allowing easiest slippage
• Wide interplanar spacings - highest planar densities
– Slip direction - direction of movement - Highest linear
densities
Adapted from Fig.
7.6, Callister 7e.

– FCC Slip occurs on {111} planes (close-packed) in <110>

directions (close-packed)
=> total of 12 slip systems in FCC
– in BCC & HCP other slip systems occur Chapter 7 - 51
 Example 8
Burgers Vector Calculation

Calculate the length of the Burgers vector in copper.

Learning
(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson

(a) Burgers
vector for FCC
copper. (b)
The atom
locations on a
(110) plane in
a BCC unit cell
(for example 8
and 9,
respectively)

52
The length of the Burgers vector, or the repeat distance, is:
b = 1/2(0.51125 nm) = 0.25563 nm

53
(a)The atoms near the boundaries of the three grains do not
have an equilibrium spacing or arrangement.
(b) Grains and grain boundaries in a stainless steel sample.
(Courtesy Dr. A. Deardo.)

56
Tilt boundary
Twist boundary
Twist boundary
 Twin boundary

Crystals are often grown with a fault in which one region

of the crystal is a mirror image of the other:

In c.p. structures,
twins are produced
by stacking faults
ABCABCBACBA
Here C is the twin
plane

Polymorphic compounds (i.e. ones with more than one

crystal structure) are prone to twinning, e.g. YBa2Cu3Od
(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

Application of a stress to the perfect crystal (a) may cause a

displacement of the atoms, (b) causing the formation of a twin.
Note that the crystal has deformed as a result of twinning. 63
Deformation or mechanical twins
•Most prevalent in h.c.p metals (magnesium, zinc) and
b.c.c. metals (tungsten, iron, etc.)
Annealing twin
•Most prevalent in f.c.c. metals (aluminum, copper,
brass, etc.)
•These metals have been previously worked and heat
treated
•The twins are formed because of a change in the
normal growth mechanism
Annealing twin Deformation twin
Deformation by Twinning

•In certain materials, particularly h.c.p. metals, twinning is

a major means of deformation
•Twinning is a movement of planes of atoms in the lattice
parallel to a specific (twinning) plane
•In twinning the atoms move only a fraction of an
interatomic space and this leads to a change of the lattice
structure in the twinned region
•The amount of movement of each plane of atoms in the
twinned region is proportional to its distance from the
twinning plane. 
Deformation by Twinning

70
(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

(c) A micrograph of twins within a grain of brass

(x250).

71
72
73
74
An extrinsic stacking fault with stacking sequence ABCBABC at
the SrRuO3/LaAlO3 interface
A Burgers circuit (dim white line is also shown) 

75
 Surface Defects

 Surface defects - Imperfections, such as grain

boundaries, that form a two-dimensional plane within
the crystal.
 Hall-Petch equation - The relationship between yield
strength and grain size in a metallic material—that is,
y   0  Kd 1/ 2
 ASTM grain size number (n) - A measure of the size of
the grains in a crystalline material obtained by counting
the number of grains per square inch a magnification 
100.
 Small angle grain boundary - An array of dislocations
causing a small misorientation of the crystal across the
surface of the imperfection.

76
 (c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning
The effect of grain size on the yield strength of
steel at room temperature.

77
78
 Importance of Defects

 Effect on Mechanical Properties via Control of

the Slip Process
 Strain Hardening
 Solid-Solution Strengthening
 Grain-Size Strengthening
 Effects on Electrical, Optical, and Magnetic
Properties

79
 Deformation Mechanisms
Slip System
– Slip plane - plane allowing easiest slippage
• Wide interplanar spacings - highest planar densities
– Slip direction - direction of movement - Highest linear
densities
Adapted from Fig.
7.6, Callister 7e.

– FCC Slip occurs on {111} planes (close-packed) in <110>

directions (close-packed)
=> total of 12 slip systems in FCC
– in BCC & HCP other slip systems occur Chapter 7 - 80
Chapter 7 -
Chapter 7 -
Chapter 7 -
Chapter 7 -
 Slip Motion in Polycrystals
• Stronger - grain boundaries

pin deformations
• Slip planes & directions
Adapted from Fig.
(, ) change from one 7.10, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.10 is
crystal to another. courtesy of C.
Brady, National
Bureau of
• R will vary from one Standards [now the
National Institute of
crystal to another. Standards and
Technology,
Gaithersburg, MD].)
• The crystal with the
largest R yields first.
• Other (less favorably
oriented) crystals 300 m
yield later.
Chapter 7 - 85
 7.6 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Materials

 Random crystallographic orientations of the

numerous grains, the direction of slip varies from
one grain to another  deformation and slip is
complex
 Photomicrograph of a polycrystalline copper
specimen
 Before deformation, the surface was polished
 Slip lines visible
 Two sets of parallel yet intersecting sets of lines
 It appears that two slip systems operated
 The difference in alignment of the slip lines for
the several grains  variation in grain orientation

86
 Gross plastic deformation 
distortion of individual grain by means
of slip
 Mechanical integrity and
coherency are maintained  grain
boundaries usually do not come apart
or open up.
 Each individual grain is constrained
by its neighboring grains.
 Figure 7.11 shows plastic deformation
 Before deformation, grains
equiaxed (have approx. same
dimension in all direction)
 After deformation, grains
elongated along the direction of
extension or loading

87
 Polycrystalline materials are stronger

 greater stresses are required to initiate slip and

yielding

 Due to geometrical constraints imposed on the

grains

 Even a favorably oriented single grain can not

deform until the adjacent less favorably
oriented grains are capable of slip also
 requires a higher applied stress level.

88
 Anisotropy in y
• Can be induced by rolling a polycrystalline metal
- before rolling - after rolling
Adapted from Fig. 7.11,
Callister 7e. (Fig. 7.11 is from
W.G. Moffatt, G.W. Pearsall,
and J. Wulff, The Structure
and Properties of Materials,
Vol. I, Structure, p. 140, John
Wiley and Sons, New York,
1964.)

rolling direction
235 m
- isotropic - anisotropic
since grains are since rolling affects grain
approx. spherical orientation and shape.
& randomly
oriented.

Chapter 7 - 89
 Anisotropy in Deformation
1. Cylinder of 2. Fire cylinder 3. Deformed
Tantalum at a target. cylinder
machined
from a Photos courtesy
of G.T. Gray III,
rolled plate: side view Los Alamos
National Labs.
Used with
permission.
rolling direction

end plate
thickness
view direction
• The noncircular end view shows
anisotropic deformation of rolled material.
Chapter 7 - 90
Mechanism of Strengthening in Metals

 The ability of a metal to plastically deform depends on the

ability of dislocations to move.

 Hardness and strength are related to the ease with which

plastic deformation can be made to occur
 To enhance mechanical strength  reduce dislocation
mobility  greater mechanical forces required to initiate
plastic deformation.

 Strengthening mechanism for single phase metal

 By grain size reduction
 Solid-solution alloying
 Strain-hardening

91
7.8 Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction
 Adjacent grains have different crystallographic orientation

 During plastic deformation, slip or dislocation motion must

take place across the common boundary (from grain A to
grain B)

 Grain boundary acts as a barrier to dislocation motion for

two reasons:

 Two grains are of different orientation  a dislocation have

to change its direction of motion  becomes more difficult
as crystallographic misorientation increases.

 Atomic disorder within a grain boundary region will result in

a discontinuity of slip planes from one grain into the other.
 4 Strategies for Strengthening:
1: Reduce Grain Size

• Grain boundaries are

barriers to slip.
• Barrier "strength"
increases with
Increasing angle of
misorientation. Adapted from Fig. 7.14, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.14 is from A Textbook of Materials
• Smaller grain size: Technology, by Van Vlack, Pearson
Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.)
more barriers to slip.

• Hall-Petch Equation:  yield  o  k y d 1 / 2

Chapter 7 - 93
 Hall-Petch Equation: For many materials, Yield strength varies with grain size as
d: average grain diameter
0 and ky are material constants
σ y  σ 0  k y d 1 / 2
 Figure 7.15 shows strength variation
for brass

 Hall-Petch equation is not valid

for very large and extremely
small grain materials
 Example 13
Design of a Mild Steel

The yield strength of mild steel with an average grain size of 0.05 mm is
20,000 psi. The yield stress of the same steel with a grain size of 0.007
mm is 40,000 psi. What will be the average grain size of the same steel
with a yield stress of 30,000 psi? Assume the Hall-Petch equation is valid
and that changes in the observed yield stress are due to changes in
dislocation density.
Example 13 SOLUTION

Thus, for a grain size of 0.05 mm the yield stress is

20  6.895 MPa = 137.9 MPa.
(Note:1,000 psi = 6.895 MPa). Using the Hall-Petch
equation
95
Example 13 SOLUTION (Continued)

For the grain size of 0.007 mm, the yield stress is 40  6.895 MPa
= 275.8 MPa. Therefore, again using the Hall-Petch equation:

Solving these two equations K = 18.43 MPa-mm1/2, and σ0 = 55.5

MPa. Now we have the Hall-Petch equation as
σy = 55.5 + 18.43 d-1/2
If we want a yield stress of 30,000 psi or 30  6.895 = 206.9
MPa, the grain size will be 0.0148 mm.
7.9 Solid Solution Strengthening
 Another technique to strengthen and
harden metals is alloying
 Adding impurity atoms that go into either
substitutional or interstitial solid solution

 High-purity metals are almost always softer

and weaker

 Fig 7.16 shows the effect of alloying nickel

in copper
Strategies for Strengthening:
2: Solid Solutions
• Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate stress.
• Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion.

• Smaller substitutional • Larger substitutional

impurity impurity

A C

B D

Impurity generates local stress at A and B Impurity generates local stress at C and D
that opposes dislocation motion to the that opposes dislocation motion to the
right. right.

99
 Ex: Solid Solution
Strengthening in Copper
• Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni.
180
Tensile strength (MPa)

Yield strength (MPa)

400 Adapted from Fig.
7.16 (a) and (b),
Callister 7e.
120
300

200 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt.% Ni, (Concentration C) wt.%Ni, (Concentration C)

• Empirical relation: y ~ C1/ 2

• Alloying increases y and TS.

Chapter 7 - 100
 4 Strategies for Strengthening:
3: Precipitation Strengthening
• Hard precipitates are difficult to shear.
Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC in Iron or Aluminum).
precipitate
Large shear stress needed
Side View to move dislocation toward
precipitate and shear it.

Unslipped part of slip plane Dislocation

Top View
“advances” but
precipitates act as
S “pinning” sites with
spacing S.
Slipped part of slip plane

1
• Result: y ~
S
Chapter 7 - 101
 Application:
Precipitation Strengthening
• Internal wing structure on Boeing 767
Adapted from chapter-
opening photograph,
Chapter 11, Callister 5e.
(courtesy of G.H.
Narayanan and A.G.
Miller, Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)

• Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed

by alloying.
Adapted from Fig.
11.26, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 11.26 is
courtesy of G.H.
Narayanan and A.G.
Miller, Boeing
Commercial Airplane
Company.)

1.5m
Chapter 7 - 102
Stress Concentration at Dislocations

Adapted from Fig. 7.4,

Callister 7e.

Chapter 7 - 103
 Strengthening by Alloying
• small impurities tend to concentrate at dislocations
• reduce mobility of dislocation  increase strength

Adapted from Fig.

7.17, Callister 7e.

Chapter 7 - 104
 Strengthening by alloying
• large impurities concentrate at dislocations on low
density side

Adapted from Fig.

7.18, Callister 7e.

Chapter 7 - 105
 Alloys are stronger than pure metals
 Impurity atoms impose lattice strain on
surrounding host atoms
 Lattice strain field interaction between dislocation
and impurity atoms result
 dislocation movement is restricted
 An impurity atom that is smaller than a host atom 
substitution results tensile strains on the surrounding
crystal lattice ( Fig 7.17a)
 Larger substitutional atom imposes compressive
strains in its vacinity (Fig 7.18a)
 Solute atoms tend to diffuse to and segregate around dislocations  reduce
strain energy  to cancel some lattice strain surrounding a dislocation

 To accomplish this,
 a smaller impurity atom is located where its tensile strain will partially
nullify some of the dislocation’s compressive strain
 A larger atom to nullify tensile strain of dislocation
 Figure 7.17b and 7.18b

 Resistance to slip is greater

 Overall lattice strain must increase if dislocation is torn away from them
 Same strain interaction exist between atoms and dislocation that are in
motion during plastic deformation
 greater applied stress is needed to initiate and continue plastic
deformation
7.10 Strain Hardening
 Strain hardening  a phenomenon whereby a
ductile material becomes harded and stronger as it
is plastically deformed.
 Also known as work-hardening or cold working
 Most metals strain harden at room temperature
 Degree of plastic deformation is expressed as
percent cold work (%CW)

 A0  Ad 
%CW     100
 A0 
 4 Strategies for Strengthening:
4: Cold Work (%CW)
• Room temperature deformation.
• Common forming operations change the cross
sectional area:
-Forging force -Rolling
roll
die Ad
A o blank Ad Ao
Adapted from Fig.
11.8, Callister 7e. roll

-Drawing force -Extrusion

Ao
die Ad container
die holder
Ao tensile force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die container die
Ao  Ad
%CW  x 100
Ao Chapter 7 - 109
 Dislocations During Cold Work
• Ti alloy after cold working:

• Dislocations entangle
with one another
during cold work.
• Dislocation motion
becomes more difficult.

Adapted from Fig.

4.6, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 4.6 is courtesy
of M.R. Plichta,
Michigan
Technological
0.9 m University.)

Chapter 7 - 110
 Why more stronger ?
 On the average, dislocation-dislocation strain
interactions are repulsive
 Dislocation density increases due to
 Deformation or cold work
 Dislocation multiplication
 Formation of new dislocations

 Net result  motion of dislocation is hindered by the

presence of other dislocations  higher imposed
stress is needed to deform a metal

111
 Result of Cold Work
total dislocation length
Dislocation density =
unit volume
– Carefully grown single crystal
 ca. 103 mm-2
– Deforming sample increases density
 109-1010 mm-2
– Heat treatment reduces density
 105-106 mm-2

• Yield stress increases
y1 large hardening
as d increases: y0 small hardening


Chapter 7 - 112
 Effects of Stress at Dislocations

Adapted from Fig.

7.5, Callister 7e.

Chapter 7 - 113
 Impact of Cold Work
As cold work is increased
• Yield strength (y) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

Adapted from Fig. 7.20,

Callister 7e.

Chapter 7 - 114
 Cold Work Analysis
• What is the tensile strength & Copper
ductility after cold working? Cold
Work
ro2  rd2
%CW  x 100  35.6%
2
ro Do =15.2mm Dd =12.2mm
yield strength (MPa) tensile strength (MPa) ductility (%EL)
60
700 800

500 600 40

300
300MPa Cu
Cu 400 340MPa 20
Cu 7%
100
0 20 40 60 200 00
0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work
y = 300MPa TS = 340MPa %EL = 7%
Adapted from Fig. 7.19, Callister 7e. (Fig. 7.19 is adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and
Selection: Iron and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th ed., B. Bardes (Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p. 226; and
Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker
(Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979, p. 276 and 327.) Chapter 7 - 115
 Effect of Heating After %CW
• 1 hour treatment at Tanneal...
decreases TS and increases %EL.
• Effects of cold work are reversed!
annealing temperature (ºC)
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
tensile strength (MPa)

600 60
tensile strength

ductility (%EL)
50
500
• 3 Annealing
40
stages to
400 30 discuss...
ductility 20
Adapted from Fig. 7.22, Callister 7e. (Fig.
7.22 is adapted from G. Sachs and K.R. van
300 Horn, Practical Metallurgy, Applied
Metallurgy, and the Industrial Processing of
Re Re Gr Ferrous and Nonferrous Metals and Alloys,
c ov c ry s ain American Society for Metals, 1940, p. 139.)
e ry tal Gr
liza ow
tio th
n Chapter 7 - 116
Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth
 Plastic deformation of polycrystalline metal at
temperatures lower than its melting temperature produces
 micro-structural and property changes
 includes
1. A change in grain shape
2. Strain hardening
3. Increase in dislocation density

 Some fraction of deformation energy (about 5%) stored in

metal as strain energy
 Associated with tensile, compressive and shear zones
around newly created dislocations
 Other properties (such as electrical conductivity and
corrosion resistance ) may be modified by plastic
deformation.

117
 Modified Properties and structures due to plastic
deformation (cold work)
 May revert back to the precold-worked states by
Annealing
 Annealing is a heat treatment process
 Restoration due to due different processes at
elevated temperatures
 Recovery
 Recrystallization

 Above processes may be followed by grain growth.

118
 Recovery
Annihilation reduces dislocation density.
• Scenario 1 extra half-plane
of atoms Dislocations
Results from annihilate
diffusion atoms
and form
diffuse
a perfect
to regions
atomic
of tension
extra half-plane plane.
of atoms
• Scenario 2
3. “Climbed” disl. can now R
move on new slip plane
2. grey atoms leave by
4. opposite dislocations
vacancy diffusion
meet and annihilate
allowing disl. to “climb”
1. dislocation blocked; Obstacle dislocation
can’t move to the right

Chapter 7 - 119
7.11 Recovery

 At elevated temperature
 enhanced atomic diffusion
 dislocation motion
 some stored strain energy relieved
Recovery process Involves
 Reduction in dislocation numbers
 Dislocation configuration with low strain
energy
(similar to Fig 4.8)

 Physical properties are recovered to their

precold-worked state
 Electrical and thermal conductivities

120
7.12 Recrystallization

 Even after recovery is complete, the grains are still in a

relatively high strain energy state.

 Recrystallization is the formation of a new set of strain-free

and equiaxed grains having low dislocation densities as the
precold-worked state.

 Difference in internal energy between the strained and

unstrained material  acts as the driving force to produce
new grain structure

 New grains form as very small nuclei  grow until

completely replace the parent material  involves short-
range diffusion

121
7.12 Recrystallization
 During recrystallization, mechanical properties restored to their
precold-worked values

Metal becomes softer, weaker, yet ductile

 Some heat treatments are designed to allow recrystallization

to occur these modifications in the mechanical characteristics.

 Recrystallization depends on both time and temperature

 Influence of time
The degree (or fraction ) of recrystallization increases with
time (Figure 7.21a-d)

122
 7.12 Recrystallization (Contd.)
Several stages of recrystallization

 (a) cold-worked
(33%) grain
structure

 (b) Initial stage

of
recrystallization
after heating 3 s
at 580oC

123
 Recrystallization
• New grains are formed that:
-- have a small dislocation density
-- are small
-- consume cold-worked grains.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (a),(b),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (a),(b)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

33% cold New crystals

worked nucleate after
brass 3 sec. at 580C.

Chapter 7 - 124
 7.12 Recrystallization (Contd.)
Several stages of recrystallization

 (c) Partial
replacement of
cold-worked
grains by
recrystallized
ones (4s at
580oC)

 (d) complete
recrystallization
(8s at 580oC)

125
 Further Recrystallization
• All cold-worked grains are consumed.

0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (c),(d),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (c),(d)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 4 After 8
seconds seconds

Chapter 7 - 126
 7.12 Recrystallization (Contd.)
Several stages of recrystallization

 (e) Grain growth

after 15 min at
580oC

 (d) Grain growth

after 10 min at
700oC

127
 Recrystallization Temperature, TR
TR = recrystallization temperature = point of
highest rate of property change
1. Tm => TR  0.3-0.6 Tm (K)
2. Due to diffusion  annealing time TR = f(t)
shorter annealing time => higher TR
3. Higher %CW => lower TR – strain hardening
4. Pure metals lower TR due to dislocation
movements
• Easier to move in pure metals => lower TR

Chapter 7 - 128
 Rate of Recrystallization
E 50%
logR  logt  logR0  start
kT
B 1
logt  C  TR finish
T
note : R  1 / t

• Hot work  above TR log t

• Cold work  below TR

• Smaller grains
– stronger at low temperature
– weaker at high temperature

Chapter 7 - 129
 Recrystallization temperature
 The temperature at which recrystallization just reaches completion in 1 hour.
 Recrystallization temperature of brass alloy (Fig 7.22) is about 450 oC (850oF).
 It is about 1/3 to ½ of absolute melting temperature
 Depends on several factors, such as % cold work, purity of alloy etc.

 Effect of %CW
 Increasing %CW enhances the rate of recrystallization  recrystallization
temperature is lowered
 Recrysttalization temperature approaches a constant or limiting value at high
deformation.
 Critical degree of cold work
 Below which no recrystallization

 Ususally 2 – 20 %

130
131
 Effect of alloying
 Recrystallization proceeds more rapidly in pure metal
than in alloys  alloying raises recrystallization
temperature
 For pure metal: normally it is 0.3(Melting temperature)
For alloys, it may run as high as 0.7(melting temperature)

Hot working : plastic deformation operations at

temperatures above the recrystallization temperature
 Material remains relatively soft and ductile during
deformation
 It does not strain harden
 Large deformations possible

132
 Design Example 7.1

133
7.13 Grain growth
 After recrystallization is complete, the
strain-free grains will continue to grow if
the metal specimen is left at the
elevated temperature  phenomenon is
known as grain growth.

 It occurs by the migration of grain

boundaries
 Boundary motion is just the short-
range diffusion of atoms from one
side of the boundary to the other
 Direction of boundary movement and
atomic motion are opposite.
 Schematic reprsentationin Fig 7.24

134
 Grain Growth
• At longer times, larger grains consume smaller ones.
• Why? Grain boundary area (and therefore energy)
is reduced.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (d),(e),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (d),(e)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 8 s, After 15 min,

580ºC 580ºC
coefficient dependent
• Empirical Relation:
on material and T.
exponent typ. ~ 2
grain diam. elapsed time
n
at time t. d  d on  Kt
Ostwald Ripening
Chapter 7 - 135
 For many polycrystalline materials, grain diameter (d)
varies with time as

dn – don = Kt

do : initial grain diameter at t=0

K, n: time-dependent constants
n is equal to greater than 2

 Dependence of grain size on time and temperature is

shown in Fig 7.25
 Brass alloy
 At higher temperature, rapid growth  due to
enhancement of diffusion rate

136
137
 º

Brass alloy
TR = recrystallization
temperature

TR

Adapted from Fig.

7.22, Callister 7e.

º
Chapter 7 - 138
 Coldwork Calculations
A cylindrical rod of brass originally 0.40 in (10.2 mm)
in diameter is to be cold worked by drawing. The
circular cross section will be maintained during
deformation. A cold-worked tensile strength in excess
of 55,000 psi (380 MPa) and a ductility of at least 15
%EL are desired. Further more, the final diameter
must be 0.30 in (7.6 mm). Explain how this may be
accomplished.

Chapter 7 - 139
 Coldwork Calculations Solution
If we directly draw to the final diameter
what happens?
Brass
Cold
Work

Do = 0.40 in Df = 0.30 in

 Ao  Af   Af 
%CW    x 100  1   x 100
 Ao   Ao 
 Df2 4    0.30  2 
 1   x 100  1     x 100  43.8%
2   0.40  
 Do 4   
Chapter 7 - 140
 Coldwork Calc Solution: Cont.

420 540

Adapted from Fig.

• For %CW = 43.8% 7.19, Callister 7e.

 y = 420 MPa
– TS = 540 MPa > 380 MPa
– %EL = 6 < 15
• This doesn’t satisfy criteria…… what can we do?
Chapter 7 - 141
 Coldwork Calc Solution: Cont.

380 15

12 27

Adapted from Fig.

For TS > 380 MPa > 12 %CW 7.19, Callister 7e.

For %EL < 15 < 27 %CW

 our working range is limited to %CW = 12-27

Chapter 7 - 142
 Coldwork Calc Soln: Recrystallization
Cold draw-anneal-cold draw again
• For objective we need a cold work of %CW  12-27
– We’ll use %CW = 20
• Diameter after first cold draw (before 2nd cold draw)?
– must be calculated as follows:
 Df 2 2  Df 2
2
%CW
%CW  1  
2 
x 100  1  2

 D02  D02
100

Df 2  %CW 
0.5 Df 2
 1  D02 
   %CW 
0 .5
D02  100  1  
 100 
0. 5
 20 
Intermediate diameter = Df 1  D02  0.30 1    0.335 m
 100 
Chapter 7 - 143
 Coldwork Calculations Solution
Summary:
1. Cold work D01= 0.40 in  Df1 = 0.335 m
 2 
 
0.335 
%CW1  1  x 100  30
  0.4 
 
 

2. Anneal above D02 = Df1

3. Cold work D02= 0.335 in  Df 2 =0.30 m
  0 .3  2  Fig 7.19  y  340 MPa
%CW2  1     x 100  20 
  0.335   TS  400 MPa
 
%EL  24
Therefore, meets all requirements

Chapter 7 - 144
 -  Behavior vs. Temperature
800
• Results for -200C
polycrystalline iron:

Stress (MPa)
600
-100C
400

200 25C
Adapted from Fig. 6.14,
Callister 7e. 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Strain
• y and TS decrease with increasing test temperature.
• %EL increases with increasing test temperature.
3. disl. glides past obstacle
• Why? Vacancies 2. vacancies
help dislocations replace
atoms on the
move past obstacles. disl. half
obstacle
plane 1. disl. trapped
by obstacle

Chapter 7 - 145