“ME 212

MATERIALS SCIENCE”
IV: Defects in Materials

Prof. Dr. Tarık BAYKARA

 ME 212 Materials Science; T.Baykara

TYPES OF IMPERFECTIONS/DEFECTS
• Vacancy atoms
• Interstitial atoms Point defects
• Substitutional atoms

• Dislocations Line defects

• Grain Boundaries Area defects

* Interfaces

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A point defect occurs when one or more atoms of a crystalline
solid leave their original lattice site and/or foreign atoms occupy
the interstitial position of the crystal.
Line defects, or dislocations, are lines along which whole rows
of atoms in a solid are arranged anomalously. The resulting
irregularity in spacing is most severe along a line called the line of
dislocation. Line defects can weaken or strengthen solids.
Surface defects are the boundaries or planes that separate a
material into regions, with each region having the same crystalline
structure but a different orientation. Surface defects are usually
formed by surface finishing methods like embossing or by
degradation caused by weathering or environmental stress
cracking
Volume defects are Voids, i.e. the absence of a number of
atoms to form internal surfaces in the crystal. They have similar
properties to microcracks because of the broken bonds at the
surface
 Position of the point defects may be random or an arranged
manner.
 Weight and density of the crystalline solid may increase, decrease
or even remain constant for Point defect.
 Point defects are inherent to the natural material, whose
temperature is above absolute zero temperature (0K). However,
perfect crystal can be obtained in scientific laboratories with tight
control of environment.
 Point defect can affect the equilibrium of neighboring atoms and
can put them under tension or compression.
 Point defects can change the physical and chemical properties of
the solid, such as it can convert an insulator to electrically
conductor one, it can increase the hardness of the material.
 Sometime point defects are intentionally created in the solid in a
controlled way in order to modify the properties of the material for
better functionality.
ME 212 Materials Science; T.Baykara
Causes of Point Defect in Crystalline Solid:
 Diffusion (solid-solid).
 Increase or decrease in temperature in
presence of other medium.
 Plastic deformation.
 Particle or ion bombarding, such as
sputtering or ion irradiation.
 Deliberate alloying to enhance properties.
 Presence of residual stress.
 ME 212 Materials Science; T.Baykara
POINT DEFECTS
• Vacancies:
-vacant atomic sites in a structure.

Vacancy
distortion
of planes

• Self-Interstitials:
-"extra" atoms positioned between atomic sites.

self-
distortion interstitial
of planes

3
 POINT DEFECTS IN ALLOYS
Two outcomes if impurity (B) added to host (A):
• Solid solution of B in A (i.e., random dist. of point defects)

OR

Substitutional alloy Interstitial alloy

(e.g., Cu in Ni) (e.g., C in Fe)
• Solid solution of B in A plus particles of a new
phase (usually for a larger amount of B)
Second phase particle
--different composition
--often different structure.

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EQUIL. CONCENTRATION: POINT DEFECTS

• Equilibrium concentration varies with temperature!

No. of defects Activation energy

ND  Q 
exp 
 D 

N  kT 
No. of potential Temperature
defect sites. Boltzmann's constant
(1.38 x 10-23 J/atom K)
(8.62 x 10-5 eV/atom K)
Each lattice site
is a potential
vacancy site
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 MEASURING ACTIVATION ENERGY
• We can get Q from
an experiment.

• Measure this...
• Replot it...

ND slope
1
ln
N
-QD/k

1/T

Nd / N çoğu metalde hemen ergitme sıcaklığı altında 10 üzeri -4 mertebesindedir; yani

her 10 000 noktadan birisi boşluktur

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COMPOSITION
Definition: Amount of impurity (B) and host (A)
in the system.

Two descriptions:

• Weight % • Atom %

• Conversion between wt % and at% in an A-B alloy:

C'BAB
CB = x 100
C'AAA + C'BAB
• Basis for conversion:

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 ESTIMATING VACANCY CONC.
• Find the equil. # of vacancies in 1m3 of Cu at 1000 C

• Given:

0.9eV/atom
ND Q 
 exp 
 D 
= 2.7 · 10-4
N  kT 
1273K
8.62 x 10-5 eV/atom-K
NA
For 1m3, N =  x x 1m3 = 8.0 x 1028 sites
• Answer:
ACu

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 ME 212 Materials Science; T.Baykara
LINE DEFECTS
Dislocations:
• are line defects,
• cause slip between crystal plane when they move,
• produce permanent (plastic) deformation.

Schematic of a Zinc (HCP):

• before deformation • after tensile elongation

slip steps

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 ME 212 Materials Science; T.Baykara

LINE DEFECTS – (DISLOCATIONS)

 Discrepancy is due to dislocations.
 Dislocations are lattice distortions centered
around a line.
 Formed during
 Solidification
 Permanent Deformation
 Vacancy condensation
 Different types of line defects are
 Edge dislocation
 Screw dislocation
 Mixed dislocation
ME 212 Materials Science; T.Baykara
 ME 212 Materials Science; T.Baykara

EDGE DISLOCATION
 Created by insertion of extra half planes of atoms.

 Positive edge dislocation

 Negative edge dislocation

Burgers vector
 Burgers vector
Shows displa-
cement of
atoms (slip).

Figure 4.18
4-23 After M. Eisenstadt, “Introduction to Mechanical Properties of Materials,” Macmillan, 1971, p.117
After A.G. Guy , “Essentials of Materials Science,” McGraw-Hill, 1976, p.153
 ME 212 Materials Science; T.Baykara
SCREW DISLOCATION
 Created due to shear stresses applied to regions of a perfect
crystal separated by cutting plane.
 Distortion of lattice in form of a spiral ramp.
 Burgers vector is parallel to dislocation line.

After M. Eisenstadt, “Introduction to Mechanical Properties of Materials,” Macmillan, 1971, p.118

 ME 212 Materials Science; T.Baykara

MIXED DISLOCATION
 Most crystal have components
of both edge and screw
dislocation.

Figure 4.21

 Dislocation, since have

irregular atomic arrangement
will appear as dark lines
when observed in electron
microscope.
Dislocation structure of iron deformed
14% at –1950C
(After John Wolff et al., “Structure and Properties of Materials,” vol 3: “Mechanical Properties,” Wiley, 1965, p.65.
4-25 (After “Metals Handbook” vol. 8, 8th ed., American Society of Metals, 1973, p.164)
 ME 212 Materials Science; T.Baykara

INTERFACES (DOMAINS): GRAIN BOUNDARIES

Grain boundaries:
• are boundaries between crystals.
• are produced by the solidification process, for example.
• have a change in crystal orientation across them.
• impede dislocation motion. Metal Ingot
Schematic ~ 8cm

grain
boundaries

Adapted from Fig. 4.7, Callister 6e.
heat
flow Adapted from Fig. 4.10, Callister 6e. (Fig.
4.10 is from Metals Handbook, Vol. 9, 9th edition,
Metallography and Microstructures, Am. Society for
Metals, Metals Park, OH, 1985.) 15
MM 212 Malzeme Bilimi; T.Baykara
 ME 212 Materials Science; T.Baykara

GRAIN BOUNDARIES
 Grain boundaries separate grains.
 Formed due to simultaneously growing crystals meeting each
other.
 Width = 2-5 atomic diameters.
 Some atoms in grain boundaries have higher energy.
 Restrict plastic flow and prevent dislocation movement.

Figure 4.25
3D view of
grains

Grain Boundaries
In 1018 steel

(After A.G. Guy, “ Essentials of materials Science,” McGraw-Hill, 1976.)

ME 212 Materials Science; T.Baykara
 ME 212 Materials Science; T.Baykara

OPTICAL MICROSCOPY
• Useful up to 2000X magnification.
• Polishing removes surface features (e.g., scratches)
• Etching changes reflectance, depending on crystal
orientation.

close-packed planes
Adapted from Fig. 4.11(b) and (c),
Callister 6e. (Fig. 4.11(c) is courtesy
of J.E. Burke, General Electric Co.

micrograph of
Brass (Cu and Zn)

0.75mm
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 ME 212 Materials Science; T.Baykara

OPTICAL MICROSCOPY (2)

Grain boundaries...

• are imperfections,
• are more susceptible
to etching,
• may be revealed as
dark lines,
• change direction in a
polycrystal.
Adapted from Fig. 4.12(a)
and (b), Callister 6e.
(Fig. 4.12(b) is courtesy
of L.C. Smith and C.
Brady, the National
Bureau of Standards,
Washington, DC [now the
National Institute of
Standards and
Technology, Gaithersburg,
MD].)

17
 ME 212 Materials Science; T.Baykara

THE SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

 Electron source generates
electrons.
 Electrons hit the surface
and secondary electrons are
produced.
 The secondary electrons
are collected to produce the
signal.
 The signal
is used to
produce
the image.
ME 212 Materials Science; T.Baykara
• Electrons transmit through the
sample
• Transmitting electrons are
focused using objective lenses
and image is created
• Image than moves toward the
objective lens inside the vacuum
column while magnified
• Image than reflected on the
phosphorous screen

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF
TEM
ME 212 Materials Science; T.Baykara
Hematite in Scanning Electron
Microscope, magnification 100x
coccolithophore
 Transmission electron microscope image
of magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) can
be used to detect and characterize
nanoparticles, such as these nano-C60
particles, which form when fullerenes (hollow
carbon molecules) clump together in water
 MM 212 Malzeme Bilimi; T.Baykara

Volume Defects (Bulk Defects)

Macroscopical large size faults: Voids, cracks, crevices,
inclusions-unwanted particles
 Formed during the manufacturing process
 Inclusions- Unwanted second phase particles. In metals
as oxide particles- cannot be dissolved in liquid metal stay
within the structure
  CASTING DEFECTS: Contraction crevices, gas pores/holes

Gas Porosity and adjacent blow hole in Zinc

Die Casting
 FORGING DEFECTS-cracks
 WELDING AND JOINING DEFECTS