Chapter 1

The Human Organism

Jed Esperidion S. Jumilla II, RMT, MD
 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lecture the student should be able to:
• To be able to differentiate anatomy and physiology .
• To enumerate the different branches of anatomy .
• To know what is anatomical position, directional
terms and the different body planes.
 Case study
A 20-year-old male was brought to the emergency
room due to motor-vehicular accident. Patient was
seen in the hospital bed in a supine position, awake,
alert, not in respiratory distress.
Physical Examination revealed compound displaced
open fracture at the right distal tibia with loss of
sensation of the plantar area of the foot ipsilateral to
the said fracture. There were also a note of blunt
trauma on the left upper and lower quadrant of the
abdomen.
Appropriate evaluation and management was done to
the patient.
1. What are the anatomical terms presented in
the case?
2. Define these anatomical terms.
3. Explain the case in layman’s term.
 Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy:
• investigates body structure
• the term means to dissect
Physiology:
• investigates processes and functions
• Human Physiology:
• studies the human organism
Systemic Physiology:
• studies body organ-systems
Cellular Physiology:
• studies body cells
Importance of Anatomy and Physiology
Understand how the body:
• responds to stimuli
• environmental changes
• environmental cues
• diseases
• injury
 Types of Anatomy
Systemic:
• studies body organ-systems
Regional:
• studies body regions (medical schools)
Surface:
• studies external features, for example, bone
projections
Anatomical imaging:
• using technologies (x-rays, ultrasound, MRI)
Structural and Functional Organization 1

Six levels from chemical to organism:

1. Chemical:
• smallest level
• atoms, chemical bonds, molecules

2. Cellular:
• cells: basic units of life
• compartments and organelles
• examples are mitochondria, nucleus
Figure 1.1
Structural and Functional Organization 2

3. Tissues:
• group of cells with similar structure and function
plus extracellular substances they release
• four broad types:
Epithelial
Connective
Muscular
Nervous

Figure 1.1
Structural and Functional Organization 3

4. Organs:
• two or more tissue types acting together to
perform function(s)
• Examples: stomach, heart, liver, ovary, bladder,
kidney

Figure 1.1
Structural and Functional Organization 4

5. Organ-System:
• group of organs contributing to some function
• for example, digestive system, reproductive system

Figure 1.1
Structural and Functional Organization 5

6. Organism:
• all organ systems working together
• includes associated microorganisms such as
intestinal bacteria

Figure 1.1
©Bart Harris/Getty Images
Structural and Functional Organization 6

Figure 1.1
1.1(6) ©Bart Harris/Getty Images
Major Organs of the Body

Figure 1.2
Organ Systems of the Body 1
Organ Systems of the Body 2
 Characteristics of Life 1

Organization:
• functional interrelationships between parts
Metabolism:
• sum of all chemical and physical changes sustaining an
organism
• ability to acquire and use energy in support of these
changes
Responsiveness:
• ability to sense and respond to environmental changes
• includes both internal and external environments
 Characteristics of Life 2

Growth:
• can increase in size
• size of cells, groups of cells, extracellular materials
Development:
• changes in form and size
• changes in cell structure and function from
generalized to specialized—differentiation
Reproduction:
• formation of new cells or new organisms
• generation of new individuals
• tissue repair
 Homeostasis 1

Homeostasis:
• maintenance of constant internal environment despite
fluctuations in the external or internal environment
Variables:
• measures of body properties that may change in value
Examples of variables:
body temperature blood glucose levels
heart rate blood cell counts
blood pressure respiratory rate
 Homeostasis 2

Normal range: normal extent of increase or decrease

around a set point
Set point: normal, or average value of a variable
Over time, body temperature fluctuates around a set point

Figure 1.4
 Homeostasis 3

Set points for some variables can be temporarily

adjusted depending on body activities, as needed:
Examples Common cause of change

body temperature fever

heart rate, blood pressure exercise

respiratory rate
 Homeostasis 4

Negative feedback is the main mechanism used

homeostatic regulation.
• A negative feedback response involves:
detection: of deviation away from set point
and
correction: reversal of deviation toward set point
and normal range
 Homeostasis 5

The components of feedback:

1. Receptor:
• detects changes in variable

2. Control center:
• receives receptor signal
• establishes set point
• sends signal to effector

3. Effector:
• directly causes change in variable
Homeostasis 6

Figure 1.5
Negative Feedback Control of Body Temperature

Figure 1.6
 Homeostasis 7

Positive feedback mechanisms occur when the

initial stimulus further stimulates the response
• system response causes progressive deviation away from
• set point, outside of normal range
• not directly used for homeostasis
• some positive feedback occurs under normal conditions
Example: childbirth
• generally associated with injury, disease
• negative feedback mechanisms unable to maintain
homeostasis
 Homeostasis 8

Comparison of negative feedback and positive

feedback

Figure 1.7
 Terminology and the Body Plan
Anatomical position:
• person standing erect with
face and palms forward
• all relational descriptions
based on the anatomical
position, regardless of
body orientation

Figure 1.8
©Eric Wise
 Directional Terms 1

Superior: above
Inferior: below

Anterior: front (also: ventral)

Posterior: back (also: dorsal)
Note: In four-legged animals, the
terms ventral (belly) and dorsal
(back) correspond to anterior and
posterior in humans

Figure 1.8
©Eric Wise
 Directional Terms 2

Medial: close to midline

Lateral: away from midline
Proximal: close to point of
attachment
Distal: far from point of
attachment
Superficial: structure close to
the surface
Deep: structure toward the
interior of the body
Figure 1.8
©Eric Wise
Directional Terms 3

Figure 1.8
©Eric Wise
 Body Planes 1

Sagittal plane: separates the body

into right and left parts
Median plane: a sagittal plane
along the midline that divides body
into equal left and right halves
Transverse plane: a horizontal
plane that separates the body into
superior and inferior parts.
Frontal plane: a vertical plane that
separates the body into anterior
and posterior parts.
Figure 1.11
©Eric Wise
Body Planes 2

(a) ©Eric Wise; (b,c,d) ©R. T. Hutchings

Planes of Section Through an Organ

Figure 1.12
 Body Regions
Upper limbs:
• upper arm, forearm, wrist, hand

Lower limbs:
• thigh, lower leg, ankle, foot

Central region:
• head, neck, trunk

Figure 1.9
©Eric Wise
 Body Parts and Regions 1

Figure 1.9
©Eric Wise
 Body Parts and Regions 2

Figure 1.9
©Eric Wise
 Subdivisions of the Abdomen

Figure 1.10
 Body Cavities 1

Thoracic cavity:
• space within chest wall
and diaphragm
• contains heart, lungs,
thymus gland,
esophagus, trachea
Mediastinum:
• space between lungs
• contains heart, thymus
gland, esophagus,
trachea Figure 1.13
 Body Cavities 2

Abdominal cavity:
• space between
diaphragm and pelvis
• contains stomach,
intestines, liver, spleen,
pancreas, kidneys
Pelvic cavity:
• space within pelvis
• contains urinary bladder,
reproductive organs, part
of large intestine Figure 1.13
 Serous Membranes 1

Line trunk cavities, cover organs

Structure:
• visceral serous membrane covers organs
• parietal serous membrane is the outer membrane
• cavity - a fluid-filled space between the membranes

Figure 1.14
 Serous Membranes 2

Three sets of serous membranes and cavities:

Membrane Cavity
Pericardium Pericardial cavity
around heart
Pleura Pleural cavity
around lungs
Peritoneum Peritoneal cavity
around abdominopelvic
cavity and its organs
Pericardium and Pericardial Cavity
Pericardium
• visceral pericardium
covers heart
• parietal pericardium
thick, fibrous
• pericardial cavity
reduces friction

Figure 1.15a
 Pleura and Pleural Cavity
Pleura
• visceral pleura
covers lungs
• parietal pleura
lines inner wall
of thorax
• pleural cavity
• reduces friction
• adheres lungs
to thoracic wall
Figure 1.15b
 Peritoneum and Peritoneal Cavity
Peritoneum
• visceral peritoneum
• covers, anchors
organs
• double layers called
mesenteries
• parietal peritoneum
lines inner wall of
abdominopelvic
cavity
• peritoneal cavity
reduces friction Figure 1.15c
Thank You