Basic Concepts

• Voltage  AC Voltage  DC Voltage  Volts

• Current  Amperes
• Ampere Hours
• Power  Watts  kiloWatts
• kilowatt Hours  Electricity Units
• Power  Joules
 What is Current?
• Flow of electrons
• Current is like water! The greater the current, the more force
it has.
• A large current is like a powerful flow of water, destroying
everything in it’s path.
• The same analogy can be made for water stored in tank and
current stored in a battery; it will leak out depending upon
the size of the opening in the tank (same for current drawn
from the battery)
• Current is of two types; Alternating current (AC) and Direct
current (DC)
Flow of current like the flow of water in a river
Current in a battery like water in a tank
 Ampere

• The unit of current is Ampere

• It is usually observed as milli Ampere
(mA)
• 1 A = 1000 mA
• The unit of AC current and DC current
is the same
 Alternating Current
• Alternating current (AC) is an electric current which periodically reverses
direction
• AC is the form in which electric power is delivered to businesses and
residences
• It is also the form of electrical energy that consumers typically use when
they plug kitchen appliances
• Electrical energy is distributed as alternating current because AC voltage
may be increased or decreased with a transformer
• Three-phase electric power is a common method of alternating current
electric power generation, transmission, and distribution and is the most
common method used by electrical grids worldwide to transfer power
 Three Phase System
• At the power station, an electrical generator converts mechanical
power into a set of three AC electric currents, one from each coil (or
winding) of the generator
• The windings are arranged such that the currents vary sinusoidally at
the same frequency but with the peaks and troughs of their wave
forms offset to provide three complementary currents with a phase
separation of one-third cycle (120°)
• The generator frequency is typically 50 or 60 Hz, depending on the
country.
• At the power station, transformers change the voltage from generators
to a level suitable for transmission in order to minimize losses
• After further voltage conversions in the transmission network, the
voltage is finally transformed to the standard utilization before power
is supplied to customers
3 Phase System
 Direct Current
• Direct current is the unidirectional flow of an electric charge
• The electric current flow is in a constant direction
• Direct current can be converted from an alternating current
by use of a rectifier, which contains electronic elements
(usually) or electromechanical elements (historically) that
allow current to flow only in one direction
• Direct current can be converted into alternating current via
an inverter
• Photovoltaic panels produce direct current!
 Measurement of Current

• Current is measured using a clamp meter or

multi-meter
• A clamp meter is ‘clamped’ around the live
wire to measure current
• For AC current measurement, the knob is set at
mA or A
• For DC current measurement, the knob is set at
mA or A

Clamp meter
Current Measurement with Multimeter Current Measurement with Clampmeter
 Short Circuit Fault
• A short circuit is an electrical circuit that allows a current to travel
along an unintended path resulting in an excessive current
• It is an abnormal connection between two nodes of an electric circuit
intended to be at different voltages
• A common type of short circuit occurs when the positive and negative
terminals of a battery are connected together
• With a low resistance in the connection, a high current will flow,
causing the delivery of a large amount of energy in a short period of
time.
• A high current flowing through a battery can cause a rapid increase of
temperature, potentially resulting in an explosion with the release of
hydrogen gas and electrolyte (an acid or a base), which can burn tissue
and cause blindness or even death
• Short circuit current is denoted as Isc
BE CAREFUL!
 Over Current
• Overcurrent is any current load in excess of the safety rating
of equipment or the ampacity* of a conductor.
• Overcurrent or excess current is a situation where a larger
than intended electric current exists through a conductor,
leading to excessive generation of heat, and the risk of fire or
damage to equipment.
• Possible causes for overcurrent include short circuits,
excessive load, incorrect design, or a ground fault.
• Fuses, circuit breakers, and current limiters are commonly
used overcurrent protection mechanisms

*Ampacity: Ampere bearing capacity

 Ampere Hours
• Ampere hours is the measurement of the capacity of a
battery
• 1 Ampere hour means that a battery has the capacity to
supply 1 Amp in 1 hour.
• 200 Ampere hour means that a battery has the capacity to
supply 200 Amperes in 1 hour
• Ampere Hour is represented as AH
• Beware of the difference between battery Ah and battery
model, usually written on batteries
NOT Ampere Hours!!
 Voltage
• Voltage is an electromotive force or potential difference
expressed in volts (V) or kilovolts (kV)
• It is the ratio of two voltages
• Voltage is given by V or E
• Voltage can be direct or alternating; usually and wrongly
known as DC or AC
• A direct voltage maintains the same polarity at all times
• In alternating voltage, the polarity reverses direction
periodically. The number of complete cycles per second is the
frequency
• Alternating voltage in Pakistan usually is 230 V
• Frequency of alternating voltage in Pakistan is 50 Hertz (Hz)
Is this safe?
 Measurement of Voltage

• Voltage is measured using a voltmeter or multi-

meter
• Both are used similarly
• The probes of a voltmeter are connected to the
positive and negative ends of a ‘system’
• For alternating voltage measurement, the knob is
set at V
• For alternating voltage measurement, the knob is
set at V

Voltmeter
Alternating Voltage
Measurement with Voltmeter

Direct Voltage Measurement

with Voltmeter
 Open Circuit Voltage
• Open-circuit voltage is the difference of electrical potential
between two terminals of a device when disconnected from any
circuit
• In an open circuit voltage, there is no external load connected and
no external electric current flows between the terminals
• The potential difference mentioned for batteries and cells is
usually the open-circuit voltage
• The open-circuit voltages of batteries and solar cells are often
quoted under particular conditions (state-of-charge, illumination,
temperature, etc.)
• Open Circuit Voltage is abbreviated as Voc
Open Circuit Voltage Measurement
 Power
• Power is the capacity of an
entity to do something in given
time
• Electric power is the rate, per
unit time, at which electrical
energy is transferred by an
electric circuit
• Electric power is the product of
voltage and current
• P=VxI
 Watts
• The unit of electrical power is Watt
• Power in terms of solar is usually given in kilowatts (kW)
• 1 kW = 1000 W
• There is no difference between AC power and DC power on
individual basis, only that AC and DC current and voltage differ
• Power is “measured” by measuring voltage and current and
multiplying both the values
• Solar Panels are rated in Watts (W), as Rated Maximum Power at
Standard Test Conditions (STC)
 Energy
• Energy is the ability to do work or apply force to move an object
• Electrical energy is a form of energy resulting from the flow of
electric charge
• It is a type of kinetic energy caused by moving electric charges
• In the case of electrical energy, the force is electrical attraction or
repulsion between charged particles
• The amount of energy depends on the speed of the charges –
the faster they move, the more electrical energy they carry
• Energy is measured in Joules (J) or in electrical terms kilowatt
hours (kWh)
 Kilowatt Hours
• Kilowatt hour is the measurement of the
electricity generated and consumed
• 1 kilowatt hour means the use of 1 kilowatt
load in 1 hour
• Generally, 1 kilowatt hour is equated to 1 unit
• The electricity charges by WAPDA are based
on the units (kilowatt-hours) consumed in a
month
• Similarly, electricity charges after net-
metering are based on the units produced and
consumed in a month

Energy Meter
 Series and Parallel Circuits
• When multiple components are connected in a circuit, series, parallel or
series-parallel circuits are formed.
• A series-parallel circuit contains series circuit as well as parallel circuit
 Series Circuit
• Current: The amount of current is the same through any component in a
series circuit
• Resistance: The total resistance of any series circuit is equal to the sum of
the individual resistances
• Voltage: The supply voltage in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the
individual voltage drops
 Parallel Circuit
• Voltage: Voltage is equal across all components in a parallel circuit
• Current: The total circuit current is equal to the sum of the individual
branch currents
• Resistance: Individual resistances diminish to equal a smaller total
resistance rather than add to make the total
Calculate the current flowing through each resistor…
Hint: vr1 = vr2 = vr3 = 9V
How do YOU thing appliances are connected?

• In series? Or in parallel?
• Why in series?
• Why in parallel?
• Which combination do you think should be used?
Bulbs connected in parallel
Bulbs connected in series
End of the 2nd class