Open Channel Flow

School of Civil and

Monroe L. Weber-Shirk Environmental Engineering
 Open Channel Flow
 Liquid (water) flow with a ____ ________
free surface
(interface between water and air)
 relevant for
 natural channels: rivers, streams
 engineered channels: canals, sewer
lines or culverts (partially full), storm drains
 of interest to hydraulic engineers
 location of free surface
 velocity distribution
 discharge - stage (______)
depth relationships
 optimal channel design
 Topics in Open Channel Flow
 Uniform Flow normal depth
 Discharge-Depth relationships
 Channel transitions
 Control structures (sluice gates, weirs…)
 Rapid changes in bottom elevation or cross section
 Critical, Subcritical and Supercritical Flow
 Hydraulic Jump
 Gradually Varied Flow
 Classification of flows
 Surface profiles
 Classification of Flows
 Steady and Unsteady (Temporal)
 Steady: velocity at a given point does not change with
time
 Uniform, Gradually Varied, and Rapidly Varied (Spatial)
 Uniform: velocity at a given time does not change
within a given length of a channel
 Gradually varied: gradual changes in velocity with
distance
 Laminar and Turbulent
 Laminar: flow appears to be as a movement of thin
layers on top of each other
 Turbulent: packets of liquid move in irregular paths
 Momentum and Energy
Equations
 Conservation of Energy
 “losses” due to conversion of turbulence to heat
 useful when energy losses are known or small
Contractions
 ____________
 Must account for losses if applied over long distances
We need an equation for losses
 _______________________________________________
 Conservation of Momentum
 “losses” due to shear at the boundaries
 useful when energy losses are unknown
Expansion
 ____________
 Open Channel Flow:
Discharge/Depth Relationship
 Given a long channel of
constant slope and cross
section find the relationship
between discharge and depth A
 Assume P
 Steady Uniform Flow - ___ _____________
 prismatic channel (no changeno acceleration
in _________ with distance)
 Use Energy, Momentum, Empirical geometry
or Dimensional
Analysis?
 What controls depth given a discharge?
 Why doesn’t the flow accelerate? hl d
0  
4l
Force balance
 Steady-Uniform Flow: Force
Balance
V2
oP  x
Shear force =________ 2g Energy grade line
P Hydraulic grade line
Wetted perimeter = __ b
Gravitational force = A x sin
________ x c

Ax sin    o Px  0

a
A
o   sin d
P Shear force
W cos  

A
= Rh Hydraulic radius W
P sin 
S   sin 
t o = g Rh S cos
W sin 

Turbulence
Relationship between shear and velocity? ___________
 Open Conduits:
Dimensional Analysis
 Geometric parameters A
Hydraulic radius (Rh) Rh 
___________________
P
Channel length (l)
___________________
___________________
Roughness ()
 Write the functional relationship
æl e ö
C p = f ç , , Re, Fr , M, W ÷
è Rh Rh ø
V
No!
 Does Fr affect shear? _________ Fr =
yg
 Pressure Coefficient for Open
Channel Flow?
 2p Pressure Coefficient
Cp   p  hl
2
V (Energy Loss Coefficient)

2 ghl hl = S f l
C hl  Head loss coefficient
V2
Friction slope
2 gS f l Friction slope coefficient Slope of EGL
CS f =
V2
 Dimensional Analysis
æl e ö 2 gS f l
CS f = f ç , , Re÷ CS f =
è Rh Rh ø V2

l æe ö
CS f = f ç , Re÷ Head loss  length of channel
Rh è Rh ø

Rh æe ö Rh
CS f = f ç , Re÷ = l (like f in Darcy-Weisbach) C Sf =l
l è Rh ø 2
l
LV
hl  f
D 2g
2 gS f l Rh l V2 2 gS R 2g
=l Sf = V = f h V = S f Rh
V 2
l Rh 2 g l l
 Chezy Equation (1768)
 Introduced by the French engineer Antoine
Chezy in 1768 while designing a canal for
the water-supply system of Paris
2g
V = C Rh S f compare V= S f Rh
l
where C = Chezy coefficient
m m 0.0054 > l > 0.00087 For a pipe
60 < C < 150 d  4 Rh
s s 0.022 > f > 0.0035
where 60 is for rough and 150 is for smooth
also a function of R (like f in Darcy-Weisbach)
 Darcy-Weisbach Equation (1840)
 d 2 
f = Darcy-Weisbach friction factor  
A  4  d

l V2 l V2 Rh   
hl = f hl = f P d 4
d 2g 4 Rh 2 g

l V2 V2 8g
Sfl = f S f Rh = f V= S f Rh
4 Rh 2 g 8g f
1   2.5 
 2 log    Similar to Colebrook
f  12 Rh Re f 
For rock-bedded streams 1
f 2
where d84 = rock size larger than 84% of the   Rh  
rocks in a random sample 1.2  2.03log   
  d84  
 Manning Equation (1891)

 Most popular in U.S. for open channels

1 2/3 1/2 (MKS units!)
V  R h So
n Dimensions of n? T /L1/3

Is n only a function of roughness? NO!

1.49
V  R 2/3
h S1/2
o (English system)
n
Bottom slope
Q  VA
1
Q  ARh2 / 3 S o1 / 2 very sensitive to n
n
 Values of Manning n
Lined Canals n
Cement plaster 0.011
Untreated gunite 0.016
Wood, planed 0.012 n = f(surface
Wood, unplaned 0.013
Concrete, trowled 0.012 roughness,
Concrete, wood forms, unfinished
Rubble in cement
0.015
0.020
channel
Asphalt, smooth 0.013 irregularity,
Asphalt, rough 0.016
Natural Channels stage...)
Gravel beds, straight 0.025
Gravel beds plus large boulders 0.040
Earth, straight, with some grass 0.026
Earth, winding, no vegetation 0.030
Earth , winding with vegetation 0.050

n  0.031d 1 / 6 d in ft d = median size of bed material

n  0.038d 1 / 6 d in m
 1
Trapezoidal Channel Q 
n
ARh2 / 3 S o1 / 2

 Derive P = f(y) and A = f(y) for a

trapezoidal channel
 How would you obtain y = f(Q)?
A  yb  y 2 z
1 y
z
2 1/ 2
P = 2 éë y + ( yz ) ù
2
û +b b
2 1/ 2
P = 2 y éë1 + z ù
û +b

Use Solver!
 Flow in Round Conduits
= ( r sin q )( r cos q )
r  y
  arccos 
 r 
radians
A  r 2   sin  cos  
r
T  2r sin 

P  2 r A y
Maximum discharge
when y = ______
0.938d T
 Velocity Distribution

1  y
v y  V  gdS 0 1  ln  For channels wider than 10d
  d
k » 0.4 Von Kármán constant 2 0.8d
V = average velocity 1.5

depth [m]
1 0.4d
d = channel depth 0.5 0.2d
0
At what elevation does the 0 1 2 3 4 5
V
velocity equal the average v(y) [m/s]

velocity?
y 1
- 1 = ln
d
y= d 0.368d
e
 Open Channel Flow: Energy
Relations
V12 hL = S f Dx
velocity head 1
energy
______
2g V22
2 grade line
2g
hydraulic
_______
y1 grade line
y2

S o x

x

Bottom slope (So) not necessarily equal to EGL slope (Sf)

 Energy Relationships
p1 V12 p2 V22 Pipe flow
+ z1 + a 1 = + z2 + a 2 + hL
g 2g g 2g z - measured from
horizontal datum

From diagram on previous slide...

2 2 Turbulent flow (  1)
V V
y1 + So Dx + 1
= y2 + 2
+ S f Dx y - depth of flow
2g 2g
Energy Equation for Open Channel Flow
V12 V22
y1 + + So Dx = y2 + + S f Dx
2g 2g
 Specific Energy
 The sum of the depth of flow and the
velocity head is the specific energy: + pressure
V2 y - _______
potential energy
E  y 
2g V2
- _______
kinetic energy
2g
E1  So x  E2  S f x

If channel bottom is horizontal and no head loss y

E1  E2
For a change in bottom elevation
E1 - Dy = E2
 Specific Energy
In a channel with constant discharge, Q
Q  A1V1  A2V2
V2 Q2
E  y  E  y  where A=f(y)
2
2g 2gA
Consider rectangular channel (A = By) and Q = qB
q2 q is the discharge per unit width of channel
E  y 
2gy 2 y A
3 roots (one is negative)
B
2
How many possible depths given a specific energy? _____
 Specific Energy: Sluice Gate
10
9
sluice gate q = 5.5 m2/s
y1 8 EGL y2 = 0.45 m
7 q2
6
E  y  V2 = 12.2 m/s
2gy 2 1
5
E2 = 8 m
y

4
3 vena contracta
2
y2 1
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
E1  E2
E
Given downstream depth and discharge, find upstream depth.
alternate depths (same specific energy)
y1 and y2 are ___________
Why not use momentum conservation to find y1?
 Specific Energy: Raise the Sluice
Gate
4
sluice gate

3
y1 EGL
2
y

1 2
y2 1
E1  E2
0
0 1 2 3 4 q2
E E  y 
2gy 2
as sluice gate is raised y1 approaches y2 and E is minimized:
Maximum discharge for given energy.
 Step Up with Subcritical Flow
Short, smooth step with rise y in channel
Given upstream depth and discharge find y2
4
Energy conserved
4 3

3 2

y
2 1
y

1 0
0 1 y 2 3 4
0 E E1 = E2 + Dy
0 1 2 3 4
E
Is alternate depth possible? __________________________
NO! Calculate depth along step.
 Max Step Up
Short, smooth step with maximum rise y in channel
What happens if the step is 4

y1 increases
increased further?___________ 3
4

y
3

1
2
y

0
1
0 1 2 3 4
y E
0 E1 = E2 + Dy
0 1 2 3 4
E
 Step Up with Supercritical flow
Short, smooth step with rise y in channel
Given upstream depth and discharge find y2
4

4 3

3 2

y
2 1
y

1 0
0 1 y 2 3 4
0 E E1 = E2 + Dy
0 1 2 3 4
E
What happened to the water depth?______________________________
Increased! Expansion! Energy Loss
 4

yc
2

y
Critical Flow 1

0
0 1 2 3 4
E

Find critical depth, yc Arbitrary cross-section

dE
 0 T
dy dy
Q2
E  y  A=f(y) y A dA
2gA2
P
dE Q 2 dA
= 1- 3
=0 dA = Tdy T=surface width
dy gA dy
More general definition of Fr
Q 2Tc 2
QT V 2T A
1   Fr 2
 Fr 2
=D Hydraulic Depth
gAc3 gA 3
gA T
 Critical Flow:
Rectangular channel
Q 2Tc T
1  T  Tc
gAc3
Q  qT Ac  ycT Ac yc

q 2T 3 q2
1 
3 3
gy T
c gyc3
1/ 3
q 2 
yc    Only for rectangular channels!
g 
 

q  gyc3 Given the depth we can find the flow!

 Critical Flow Relationships:
Rectangular Channels
1/ 3
q 2   Vc2 yc2 
yc    yc3    because q  Vc yc
g   g 
   

Vc inertial force Kinetic energy

 1 Froude number
yc g gravity force Potential energy

Vc2 yc Vc2
yc   velocity head = 0.5 (depth)
g 2 2g
V2 yc 2
E  y  E  yc  yc  E
2g 2 3
 Critical Depth

Minimum energy for a given q

dE
Occurs when =___
0
dy Vc2 yc
=
When kinetic = potential! ________
2g 2
Fr=1 4

Vc q T
Fr = = =Q 3
3

yc g 3
gyc gA
2

y
Super
Fr>1 = ______critical 1

Sub
Fr<1 = ______critical 0
0 1 2 3 4
E
 4

y
Critical Flow 1

0
0 1 2 3 4
E

dE
 Characteristics  0
dy
 Unstable surface
 Series of standing waves Difficult to measure depth
 Occurrence
 Broad crested weir (and other weirs)
 Channel Controls (rapid changes in cross-section)
 Over falls
 Changes in channel slope from mild to steep
 Used for flow measurements
 Unique relationship between depth and discharge
___________________________________________
 Broad-Crested Weir
1/ 3 yc
q 2  E
yc    H
g  yc
 
P Broad-crested
3
q  gy c Q = b gyc3 weir
2
yc  E Hard to measure yc
3
3/ 2
2 E measured from top of weir
Qb g  E 3/ 2
3
3/ 2
2  Cd corrects for using H rather
Q  Cd b g  H 
3  than E.
 Broad-crested Weir: Example
 Calculate the flow and the depth upstream.
The channel is 3 m wide. Is H approximately
equal to E? H E
yc m
yc=0.3
0.5 Broad-crested
weir

How do you find flow?____________________

Critical flow relation

Energy equation
How do you find H?______________________
Solution
 Could a hydraulic jump be laminar?

Hydraulic Jump
 Used for energy dissipation
 Occurs when flow transitions from
supercritical to subcritical
base of spillway
Steep slope to mild slope
 We would like to know depth of water
downstream from jump as well as the
location of the jump
 Which equation, Energy or Momentum?
 Hydraulic Jump
M1  M 2  W  Fp  Fp  Fss Conservation of Momentum
1 2

hL
EGL
M 1 x  M 2 x  F p  Fp 1x 2x

M 1 x   V12 A1 y2
2
y1
M 2 x  V A2 2

L
 QV1  QV2  p1 A1  p2 A2
2 2 r gy Q
Q Q gy1 A1 gy2 A2 p= V 
    2
A1 A2 2 2 A
 Hydraulic Jump:
Conjugate Depths
For a rectangular channel make the following substitutions
A  By Q  By1V1
V1
Fr1 = Froude number
gy1
y1
Much algebra y2   1  1  8 Fr12 
2
y2 - 1 + 1 + 8 Fr12
=
y1 2
valid for slopes < 0.02
 Hydraulic Jump:
Energy Loss and Length
Energy Loss E1  E2  hL
q2  y2  y1 3
E  y  algebra hL 
2gy 2 4 y1 y2
significant energy loss (to turbulence) in jump

Length of jump
No general theoretical solution
Experiments show
L  6 y2 for 4.5 < Fr1 < 13
 Specific Momentum

gy1 A1 Q 2 gy2 A2 Q 2 5 E
  
2 A1 2 A2 4 1:1 slope
y1 A1 Q 2 y2 A2 Q 2 M
   3
2 A1 g 2 A2 g

y12 q 2 y22 q 2 y 2
  
2 y1 g 2 y2 g 1
When is M minimum? E
0
1
dM q 2 2
q  3 2 3 4 5 6 7
 y 2 y    Critical depth!
dy y g  g  E or M
 Hydraulic Jump Location

 Suppose a sluice gate is located in a long

channel with a mild slope. Where will the
hydraulic jump be located?
 Outline your solution scheme

reservoir Sluice gate

2m

10 cm

S = 0.005
 Gradually Varied Flow:
Find Change in Depth wrt x
V12 V22 Energy equation for non-
y1   So x  y2   S f x
2g 2g uniform, steady flow

 V22 V12 
So dx   y2  y1       S f dx Shrink control volume
 2g 2g  T
dy  y2  y1
dy
V2 
dy  d    S f dx  S o dx y A
 2g 
P
dy d  V 2  dx dx
 Sf  So

dy dy  2 g   dy dy
 T

Gradually Varied Flow:

dy
y A dA
P

Derivative of KE wrt Depth

d  V 2  d  Q 2    2Q 2  dA   Q 2T 
         Fr 2
dy  2 g  dy  2 gA2   2 gA3  dy
 
 gA3 
 
Change in KE
dy d  V 2  dx dx dA  Tdy
 Sf  So Change in PE
dy dy  2 g  dy dy
We are holding Q constant!
2 dx dx
1  Fr  S f  So
dy dy Is V ┴ A?
Does V=Q/A?_______________

dy So  S f The water surface slope is a function of:


dx 1  Fr 2 bottom slope, friction slope, Froude number
 Gradually Varied Flow:
Governing equation
dy So  S f
 Governing equation for
dx 1  Fr 2 gradually varied flow

 Gives change of water depth with distance along channel

 Note
So and Sf are positive when sloping down in direction of
flow
y is measured from channel bottom
dy/dx =0 means water depth is _______

constant
yn is when So = S f
 Surface Profiles
 Mild slope (yn>yc)
 in a long channel subcritical flow will occur
 Steep slope (yn<yc)
 in a long channel supercritical flow will occur
 Critical slope (yn=yc)
 in a long channel unstable flow will occur
 Horizontal slope (So=0)
 yn undefined
 Adverse slope (So<0)
 yn undefined Note: These slopes are f(Q)!
 Surface Profiles
Normal depth Obstruction
Sluice gate Steep slope (S2)
Steep slope Hydraulic Jump

dy So  S f
 S0 - Sf 1 - Fr2 dy/dx
2
dx 1  Fr
4

+ + +
yn 3

- + - yc
2

y
1

- - + 0
0 1 2 3 4
E
More Surface Profiles
dy So  S f
S0 - Sf 1 - Fr2 dy/dx 
4
dx 1  Fr 2
1 + + + 3

yc
2

y
2 + - -
yn 1

3 - - + 0
0 1 2 3 4
E
 Direct Step Method
V12 V22
y1   S o x  y2   S f x energy equation
2g 2g

V12 V22
y1  y2  
2g 2g
x  solve for x
S f  So
rectangular channel prismatic channel
q q Q Q
V1  V2  V2  V1 
y1 y2 A2 A1
 Direct Step Method
Friction Slope
Manning Darcy-Weisbach
n 2V 2 V2
S f = 4/3 SI units Sf = f
Rh 8 gRh
n 2V 2
Sf = English units
2.22 Rh4 / 3
 Direct Step
prismatic
 Limitation: channel must be _________ (channel
geometry is independent of x so that velocity is a
function of depth only and not a function of x)
 Method
 identify type of profile (determines whether y is + or -)
 choose y and thus yi+1
 calculate hydraulic radius and velocity at yi and yi+1
 calculate friction slope given yi and yi+1
 calculate average friction slope
 calculate x
 Direct Step Method
=y*b+y^2*z
V12 V22
=2*y*(1+z^2)^0.5 +b y1  y2  
2g 2g
=A/P x 
S f  So
=Q/A
=(n*V)^2/Rh^(4/3)
=y+(V^2)/(2*g)
=(G16-G15)/((F15+F16)/2-So)
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
y A P Rh V Sf E Dx x T Fr bottom surface
0.900 1.799 4.223 0.426 0.139 0.00004 0.901 0 3.799 0.065 0.000 0.900
0.870 1.687 4.089 0.412 0.148 0.00005 0.871 0.498 0.5 3.679 0.070 0.030 0.900
 Standard Step
 Given a depth at one location, determine the depth at a
second given location
 Step size (x) must be small enough so that changes in
water depth aren’t very large. Otherwise estimates of the
friction slope and the velocity head are inaccurate
 Can solve in upstream or downstream direction
 Usually solved upstream for subcritical
 Usually solved downstream for supercritical
 Find a depth that satisfies the energy equation
V12 V22
y1   S o x  y2   S f x
2g 2g
 What curves are available?
Steep Slope
1.4

1.2

S1 1.0

elevation (m)
0.8

S3 0.6
bottom
0.4
surface
yc 0.2
yn
0.0
20 15 10 5 0
distance upstream (m)

Is there a curve between yc and yn that increases in

NO!
depth in the downstream direction? ______
 Mild Slope

 If the slope is mild, the depth is less than the

critical depth, and a hydraulic jump occurs,
what happens next? 0.6

Rapidly varied flow! 0.5

bottom 0.4

elevation (m)
surface
When dy/dx is large then yc 0.3
yn
V isn’t normal to cs 0.2

0.1

Hydraulic jump! Check 0.0

40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
conjugate depths distance upstream (m)
 Water Surface Profiles:
Putting It All Together

reservoir Sluice gate

2m

10 cm

S = 0.005

1 km downstream from gate there is a broad crested

weir with P = 1 m. Draw the water surface profile.
 Wave Celerity
Vw

y y+y y
V V+V V-Vw V+V-Vw y+y

unsteady flow steady flow

M1 + M 2 = W + Fp1 + Fp2 + Fss
Per unit width
1 1 Fp1 Fp2
Fp2 = - r g ( y + d y )
2
Fp1 = r gy 2
2 2 V-Vw V+V-Vw
1
Fp1 + Fp2 = r g éë y 2 - ( y + d y ) ù
2

2 û
 Wave Celerity:
Momentum Conservation
M 1    V  Vw  y M 2 = r (V + d V - Vw )(V - Vw ) y
2
Per unit width
M1 + M 2 = r y (V - Vw ) [(V + d V - Vw ) - (V - Vw )]
1
M1 + M 2 = r y (V - Vw ) d V F p1 + Fp2 = r g é
ë y 2
- ( y + d y ) ùû
2

2
Now equate pressure and momentum
1
r g éë y 2 - y 2 - 2 yd y - d y 2 ù
û = r y (V - Vw ) d V
2

 gy  V  Vw V y V-Vw V+V-Vw y+y

steady flow
 Wave Celerity
y V  Vw    y  y V  V  Vw  Mass conservation
yV  yVw  yV  yV  yV  yV  yVw  yVw

y
V  V  Vw 
y
y V-Vw V+V-Vw y+y
 gy  V  Vw V Momentum
y
gy  V  Vw 
2

y steady flow
V V
gy  V  Vw 
2
c  V  Vw c  gy  Fr 
yg c
 Wave Propagation
 Supercritical flow
 c<V
 waves only propagate downstream
 water doesn’t “know” what is happening downstream
upstream control
 _________
 Critical flow
 c=V
 Subcritical flow
 c>V
 waves propagate both upstream and downstream
 Discharge Measurements
2
Q  Cd b 2 g H 3/ 2
Sharp-Crested Weir 3
8    5/ 2
V-Notch Weir Q  Cd 2 g tan   H
15 2
3/ 2
2 
Broad-Crested Weir Q  Cd b g  H 
3 

Sluice Gate Q  Cd by g 2 gy1

Explain the exponents of H! V  2 gH

 Summary (1)

 All the complications of pipe flow plus

additional parameter... _________________
free surface location
 Various descriptions of energy loss
Chezy, Manning, Darcy-Weisbach
4

 Importance of Froude Number 3

Fr>1 decrease in E gives increase in y

2

y
1

Fr<1 decrease in E gives decrease in y 0

0 1 2 3 4
E

Fr=1 standing waves (also min E given Q)

 Summary (2)

 Methods of calculating location of free

surface (Gradually varying)
Direct step (prismatic channel)
Standard step (iterative)
dy So  S f
Differential equation 
dx 1  Fr 2
 Rapidly varying
Hydraulic jump
 Broad-crested Weir: Solution
q  gyc3 E
yc m
yc=0.3
q  (9.8m / s )0.3m 
2 3
0.5 Broad-crested
weir
q  0.5144m 2 / s
3
Q  qL  1.54m3 / s 2 E2  yc  0.45m
yc  E 2
3 E1  E2  P  0.95m
q2
E1  y1 
2gy12
q2
E1 - 2
@y1 y1  0.935
2 gE1
H1  y1  0.5m  0.435
 Summary/Overview

Energy losses V=
8g
S f Rh
f
Dimensional Analysis 1 2/3 1/2
V  R h So
Empirical n
 Energy Equation y1 +
V12
2g
+ So Dx = y2 +
V22
2g
+ S f Dx

V2 q2 Q2
Specific Energy E  y  = y+
2 gy 2 = y+
2 gA 2
2g
Two depths with same energy!
How do we know which depth4
is the right one?
3
Is the path to the new depth
2

y
possible?
1

0
0 1 2 3 4
E
 What next?

 Water surface profiles

Rapidly varied flow
A way to move from supercritical to subcritical flow
(Hydraulic Jump)
Gradually varied flow equations
Surface profiles
Direct step
Standard step
Hydraulic Jump!
 Open Channel Reflections

 Why isn’t Froude number important for describing

the relationship between channel slope, discharge,
and depth for uniform flow?
 Under what conditions are the energy and
hydraulic grade lines parallel in open channel
flow?
 Give two examples of how the specific energy
could increase in the direction of flow.