ADITYA ENGINEERING COLLEGE (A)

Design and Analysis of Algorithms

UNIT-I
By

M.Raja Babu

Associate Professor
Dept of Information Technology
Aditya Engineering College(A)
Surampalem.
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Algorithm
• An algorithm is a finite set of instructions that, if followed, accomplishes a particular task.
• All algorithms must satisfy the following criteria:
• Input
-An algorithm has zero or more inputs, taken from a specified set of objects.
• Output
-An algorithm has one or more outputs, which have a specified relation to the inputs.
• Definiteness
-Each step must be precisely defined; Each instruction is clear and unambiguous.
• Finiteness
-The algorithm must always terminate after a finite number of steps.
• Effectiveness
-All operations to be performed must be sufficiently basic that they can be done exactly and in finite
length.

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Design&analysisof Algorithms M.Raja Babu 4/29/23

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Algorithm specification
• Algorithms can be specified in the following three ways:
• 1.using a natural language like English
• 2.using pseudo code
• 3.flow chart

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Pseudo code Conventions

• 1.Commentsbegin with // and continue until the end of line.
• 2. Blocks are indicated with matching braces: { and } and Statements
are delimited by ;
• 3. The data types of variables are not explicitly declared.
• 4. Assignment of values to variables is done using the assignment
statement
variable := expression

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Pseudo code Conventions

• 5.There are two boolean values true and false. In order to produce
these values, the logical operators and , or, and not and the relational
operators<, ≤ , >, ≥,=, ≠ are provided.
• 6. Elements of multidimensional arrays are accessed using [ and ].
• 7. The following looping statements are employed:
For
while
repeat until

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Pseudo code Conventions

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Pseudo code Conventions

• 8.A conditional statement has the following forms:
if {condition)then{statement)
if {condition)then{statement1)else(statement2)
• 9. Input and output are done using the instructions read and write.
• 10. An algorithm consists of a heading and a body. The heading takes
the following general form
Algorithm Name(parameterlist)

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• As an example, the following algorithm finds and returns the maximum

of n given numbers:
1 AlgorithmMax(A, n)
2 // A is an array of size n.
3 {
4 Result:=A[l];
5 for i :=2 to n do
6 if A[i] >ResultthenResult:=A[i\\;
7 Return Result;
8 }
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Algorithm Analysis
• Analysis of algorithms is important for two reasons :
• 1. To estimate the efficiency of the given algorithm
• 2. for comparing the algorithms for the given problem.
• Efficiency of an algorithm can be analyzed at two different stages,
before implementation and after implementation.
1. priori analysis − This is theoretical analysis of an algorithm.
2. posterior analysis − This is empirical analysis of an algorithm.

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Algorithm Analysis
• Algorithm analysis deals with the execution or running time of various
operations involved.
• Running time of an operation can be defined as no. of computer
instructions executed per operation.
• Suppose X is an algorithm and n is the size of input data, the time and
space used by the Algorithm X are the two main factors which decide
the efficiency of X.
• Time Factor − The time is measured by counting the number of key
operations such as comparisons in sorting algorithm
• Space Factor − The space is measured by counting the maximum
memory space required by the algorithm.
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Algorithm Analysis
• The complexity of an algorithm f(n) gives the running time and / or
storage space required by the algorithm in terms of n as the size of
input data.
• Space Complexity: Space complexity of an algorithm represents the
amount of memory space required by the algorithm in its life cycle.
Space required by an algorithm is equal to the sum of the following
two components :
• A fixed part
• A variable part
• Space complexity S(P) of any algorithm P is S(P) = C + SP(I)
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• Algorithm: SUM(A, B)
• Step 1 - START
• Step 2 - C ← A + B + 10
• Step 3 – Stop
S(P) = 1+3.

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Time complexity
• Time Complexity of an algorithm represents the amount of time
required by the algorithm to run to completion.
• Time requirements can be defined as a numerical function T(n).
• Methods for finding time complexity of an algorithm :
• 1.step count
• 2.operation count
• 3.asymptotic analysis
• 3.recurrence relations
• 5.amortized analysis
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Step count
• In  this method, we count number of times one instruction is executing.
From that we will try to find the complexity of the algorithm.
• Algorithm sum(a[], n)
•{
• sum = 0; // 1 step * 1
• for ( i = 0; i < n; i++) // 1 step * (n+1)
• sum += a[i]; // 1 step * N
• return sum; // 1 step * 1
•}
• T(n)=1+n+1+n+1=2n+3=O(n)
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Operation count
• In  this method, time complexity is computed based on the count of basic
operations.
• Time complexity is expressed as the number of times the basic operation is
executed.
• Algorithm sum(a[], n)
•{
• sum = 0;
• for ( i = 0; i < n; i++)
• sum += a[i];
• return sum;
•}
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Best ,worst and Average case Time complexity

• Based on the distribution of input data time complexity can be
measured in three cases:
1. Best Case
2. Average Case
3. Worst Case

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Asymptotic analysis
• Asymptotic analysis is the process of calculating the running time of an
algorithm by considering the rate of growth of an algorithm.
• In Asymptotic Analysis, we evaluate the performance of an algorithm in
terms of input size (we don’t measure the actual running time).
• We calculate, how the time taken by an algorithm increases with the
input size.

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Rate of Growth of Algorithm

• The rate at which running time increases as a function of input is
called Rate of Growth.

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Asymptotic analysis
• Using asymptotic analysis, we can express the best case, average case
and worst case time complexity of an algorithm.
• We can have three cases to analyze an algorithm
1. Best Case − we calculate lower bound on running time of an
algorithm(Minimum time required for program execution)
2. Average Case − Average time required for program execution.
3. Worst Case − we calculate upper bound on running time of an
algorithm.(Maximum time required for program execution)

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Asymptotic Notations
• Asymptotic notations are the mathematical notations used to
describe the running time of an algorithm.
• Following are commonly used asymptotic notations used in
calculating running time complexity of an algorithm.
• Big Oh Notation(Ο)
• Omega Notation(Ω)
• Theta Notation (θ)

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Big Oh Notation(Ο)
• The Ο(n) is the way to express the upper bound of an algorithm's running time.
• It measures the worst case time complexity or longest amount of time an
algorithm can possibly take to complete.

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Big Oh Notation(Ο)
• If f(n) and g(n) are two functions then
• f(n) = O(g(n)) if there exists c > 0 and n0 such that f(n) ≤ c.g(n) for all
n > n0.
Example:
• 1. 3n+2=O(n) 
as 3n+2≤4n for all n≥2  
• 2. 3n+3=O(n) 
as 3n+3≤4n for all n≥3  

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• Prove that running time T(n) = n 3 + 20n + 1 is O(n 3 )

• Prove that running time T(n) = n 3 + 20n + 1 is O(n 4 )
• Show that f(n) = (n + 1)3 is O(n 3 ).

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What is the time complexity of following code:

int a = 0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
{
    for (j = 0; j <n; j++)
{
        a = a + i + j;
    }
}
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Omega Notation(Ω)
• The Ω(n) is the way to express the lower bound of an algorithm's
running time.
• It measures the best case time complexity or best amount of time an
algorithm can possibly take to complete.

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Omega Notation(Ω)
• If f(n) and g(n) are two functions then
• f(n) = Ω(g(n)) if there exists c > 0 and n0 such that f(n) >=c.g(n) for all
n > n0.
Example:
f(n) = 3n + 2
g(n) = n
3n + 2 >= C n for all values of C = 1 and n >= 1.
3n + 2 = Ω(n)

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• Prove that T(n)=3n 2 − 100n + 6 is Ω(n 2 )

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Theta Notation (θ)

• The θ(n) is the way to express both the lower bound and upper bound
of an algorithm's running time.

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Theta Notation (θ)

• If f(n) and g(n) are two functions then f(n)= θ(g(n))
if there exists c1,c2 > 0 and n0 such that
c1* g(n) ≤f(n) ≤ c2*g(n) for all n > n0.
Example:
f(n) = 3n + 2
g(n) = n
C1 n <= 3n + 2 <= C2 n for all values of C1 = 1, C2 = 4 and n >= 2
3n + 2 = Θ(n)

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• Prove that T(n) = 10n 4 − 50n 3 + 200n 2 − 1000n is Θ(n 4 )

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Recursive algorithms
• A recursive algorithm is an algorithm which calls itself with smaller input
values.
• An iterative algorithm uses a looping structure while a recursive algorithm,
a function calls itself again and again until the base condition is satisfied.
Algorithm Sum(n ) Algorithm Sum(n )
{ {
if (n == 1) Sum=0;
return 1 for(i=1;i<n;i++)
sum=sum+i;
return n + Sum(n-1)
}
}
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Algorithm for sum of digits of a number

Algorithm sum_digits(num) Algorithm sum_digits(num)
{ {
int sum = 0; if (num <= 0)
while (num > 0) {
{ return 0;
sum += num % 10; }
num = num / 10; return (num % 10) + sum_digits(num / 10);
} }
return sum;
}

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Recurrence relations
• This method is used to analyze recursive algorithms.
• When we analyze a recursive algorithm two steps are required:
• 1.forming a recurrence equation
• 2.solving the recurrence equation
• There are mainly two ways for solving recurrences.
1. Substitution Method
2. Master Theorem Method

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Substitution method
• Here the solution can be obtained by repeated substitutions of the
RHS of the RE till a pattern is obtained.

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Substitution method
• T (n) = T (n-1) +1 and T (1) =  1.  
• Solution:
• T (n) = T (n-1) +1
= (T (n-2) +1) +1
= (T (n-3) +1) +1+1
= T (n-4) +4
= T (n-5) +1+4
= T (n-5) +5
= T (n-k) + k
Where k = n-1
T (n-k) = T (1) = 1
T (n) = 1+ (n-1) = 1+n-1=n= 0 (n).
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• Algorithm Sum(n )
•{
• if (n == 1)
return 1
return n + Sum(n-1)
}
• recurrence relation is
• T(1) = 1
• T(n) = 1 + T(n-1), when n > 1. 

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What is the time complexity of

T(n)=T(n-1)+T(n-2)-T(n-3)   ,if n>3

        = n     , otherwise

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Algorithm to find factorial of a number

Algorithm factorial (num) Algorithm factorial(num)
{ {
fact=1; if (n==0 )
for (i=0;i<=n;i++) return 1
{ return n * factorial(n-1)
fact=fact*i; }
}
return fact
} The recurrence relation is defined as:
T(n) = 1 for n = 0
T(n) = n * T(n-1) for all n >0

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Algorithm to find factorial of a number

• From the above analysis we can write:
T(n) = T(n —1) + c
T(0) = 1
T(n) = T(n-1) + c
= T(n-2) + 2c
= T(n-3) + 3c
= T(n-4) + 4c
= ...
= T(n-k) + kc we know T(0) = 1
we need to find the value of k for which n - k = 0, k = n
T(n) = T(0) + cn , k = n
= 1 + cn that gives us a time complexity of O(n)
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1.solve the equation by using Substitution Method. O(n2)

T (n) = 1  if n=0  
       = T (n-1)+n  if n>0

2.solve the equation by using Substitution Method. O(nlogn)

T (n) = 1  if n=0  
       = T (n-1)+logn  if n>0

 
2.solve the equation by using Substitution Method.O(2n)
T (n) = 1  if n=0  
       = 2T (n-1)  if n>0 

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Master theorem Method

• Master Method is a direct way to get the solution.
• The master method works only for following type of recurrences or for
recurrences that can be transformed to following type.
T(n) = aT(n/b) + f(n) where a >= 1 and b > 1
• If T(n) =a T(n/b)+cnk is the equation then the solution is given as follows:
Let d=a/bk
1. if d<1 then T(n) = O(nk )
2.  if d=1 then T(n) = O(nk logb n)
3.if d!=1 then T(n)=O(n logb a )

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• time complexity of binary search

• Recurrence relation-> T(n)=T(n/2)+1
• a=1 b=2 k=0
• d=a/bk=1/1=1
• T(n)=O(logn)

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• Solve the following recurrence equation using master theorem

• T(n)=8T(n/2)+n2 O(n3)
• T(n)=3T(n/3)+n2 O(nlogn)

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