Food Science FOOD502

Carbohydrates

A/Prof. Michelle Yoo

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 Carbohydrates (CHO)
 CHOs = Sugars, starches, & fibers found in foods
 Plants are primary sources
 (except milk sugar, lactose)
 Most CHO is stored in seeds, roots, stems, & fruits
 Common sources – Grains (wheat, rice, corn), legumes
(beans, peas), fruits, & some vegetables (carrots,
potatoes)

 55-75% total energy should come from CHO

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 Food Available Carb per Serving
Bread, whole wheat (1 slice) 13
Bread, white (1 slice) 14
Bagel, (white, frozen) 35
Spaghetti, (plain, cooked, 3/4 cup) 44
Rice (brown, cooked, 3/4 cup) 38
Oatmeal (1 cup) 26
Ice cream, regular(1/2 cup) 13
Blueberry muffin (1) 29
Raisins (1/4 cup) 45
Apple 16
Banana 24
Grapes (1 cup) 18
Carrot (raw, 1 medium) 6
Sweet corn (1/2 cup) 17
Bread, 100% whole grain (1 slice) 13
Dried apricots (1/4 cup) 28
Orange juice (3/4 cup, 6 oz.) 23
Fruit yogurt (reduced fat, 3/4 cup) 24
Tomato soup (1 cup) 17
Skim milk (1 cup) 13
Baked beans (1/2 cup) 15

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 Why do we need CHO?
• Easily available as energy (glucose)
• Control of blood glucose and insulin metabolism
• Cholesterol and Triglyceride metabolism
• Satiety
• Contributes to gastrointestinal health and functions
• Imbalance of CHO in the blood causes ketosis (keto-acidosis)
• Ketosis: A state of elevated levels of ketone bodies in the
body.
– Short term side effect: constipation, hypoglycaemia
– Long term side effect: Slowed growth in children, bone fractures,
kidney stones
– 50g/day of CHO to avoid ketosis
 Excessive CHO intake
• Obesity
• Non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus
• Cardiovascular disease
• Cancer (colorectal)
• Gastrointestinal disease (constipation,
haemorrhoids, anal fissures)
• Dental caries
 Where do we get CHO from?
• Photosynthesis: glucose-> starch stored as starch
granules
• Sugar cane: 70% water, 15% sugar, 15% fibre etc
• Sugar beet: 75% water, 20% sugar, 5% pulp. Sugar
stored in roots
• Honey
 Composition of CHO
 Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), & oxygen (O)

 Basic chemical formula = Cn(H2O)n

where n stands for a number ranging from 2 into
the thousands

 CHO found primarily in green plants where

synthesized via photosynthesis

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Monosaccharides

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 Composition of Monosaccharides
– Simplest sugars
– Classified by number of carbons – Triose (three
carbons), tetrose (four carbons), pentose (five carbons),
and hexose (six carbons)
– -ose means sugars
– Pentose & hexose most common in foods
– Glucose – Most common hexose found in foods
• present in fruits, honey, corn syrup, & some vegetables
– Refined glucose = dextrose
• Used in production of a variety of foods

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Example: aldopentose (5 C atoms) or ketohexose (6 C atoms)

Glucose is the most widely occurring monosaccharide in nature (in free and
combined forms). It is of vital biochemical significance and the only simple
carbohydrate to be found in both the plant and animal kingdoms. Glucose is an
aldohexose whose structure may be represented by the following:

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CH2-5CH-4CH-3CH-2CH-1CHO
    
OH OH OH OH OH

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 Monosaccharides – Aldose (D series)
CHO
H OH
CH2OH
CHO
CHO D-Glyceraldehyde HO H
H OH (D-Glycerose) H OH
H OH
CH2OH
CH2OH D-Threose
D-Erythrose
CHO CHO CHO CHO
H OH HO H H OH HO H
H OH H OH HO H HO H
H OH H OH H OH H OH
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
D-Ribose D-Arabinose D-Xylose D-Lyxose

CHO CHO CHO CHO CHO CHO CHO CHO

H OH HO H H OH HO H H OH HO H H OH HO H
H OH H OH HO H HO H H OH H OH HO H HO H
H OH H OH H OH H OH HO H HO H HO H HO H
H OH H OH H OH H OH H OH H OH H OH H OH
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
D-Allose D-Altrose D-Glucose D-Mannose D-Gulose D-Idose D-Galactose D-Talose

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 Monosaccharides – Ketose (D series)
CH2OH
C O
CH2OH
Dihydroxyacetone

CH2OH
C O
H OH
CH2OH
CH2OH CH2OH
D-Erythrulose
C O C O
H OH HO H
H OH H OH
CH2OH CH2OH
D-Ribulose D-Xylulose
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
C O CH2OH
C O C O C O
H OH HO H H OH
H OH HO H
H OH HO H HO H
H OH H OH H OH
CH2OH H OH
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
D-Pasicose D-Fructose D-Sorbose D-Tagatose14
 Glucose

• Major sugar in blood

• Plant sources – Fruits,
vegetables, honey, corn syrup
• Can be obtained from starches
• Half as sweet as sucrose
• Used to make: candies,
beverages, baked goods,
canned fruit, and fermented
beverages
 Fructose

• Also called levulose or fruit sugar

• Found naturally in fruits and honey
• Sweetest of all sugars
• Used to make pharmaceutical
products
• Added to foods/beverages as high
fructose corn syrup
• 4 kcal per gram
• Sticky and over-browning
 Galactose
• a monosaccharide sugar
that is less sweet than
glucose
• found in dairy products,
sugar beets, and other gums
• synthesized by the body,
where it forms part of
glycolipids and glycoproteins
in several tissues
• Forms lactose with glucose
• Galactose derivatives form
the base unit of pectin 17
Disaccharides

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Glycosidic linkages are formed by dehydration

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 Sucrose (table sugar)

 Derived from sugar cane & sugar beets

 Sugar cane provide 60% of sugar consumed
 To extract from cane – Cane is washed, shredded,
crushed, and juice squeezed out
 To extract from beets – Washed, sliced, soaked in hot
water
 Further processed into these types:
Raw, white, powdered, Baker’s Special, liquid, and
brown sugars
 Non-reducing sugars (disaccharides)
Sucrose
α-D-glucopyranosyl-(12)-β-D-fructofuranoside

Source: sugar cane & sugar beets.

Known as table sugar

Enzymes: α-glucosidase
β-fructosidase

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 Reducing Sugars
 Any sugars with an open chain aldehyde (ketone) or a hemiacetal
(hemiketal) - highly reactive.

 Under basic condition, readily oxidized to acids.

 A ketose is not oxidized under this condition but isomerizes to
an aldose which then undergoes the reaction.

 Tests for the presence of reducing sugars – by Fehling's or

Benedict's reagent.

H OH- OH + + H O
++ Cu
R C O + Cu O + 2
alkaline R C
Blue Red
colour colour
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 Lactose (Milk sugar)
– glucose + galactose linked together

– One of the few saccharides derived from animal source

(milk)

– Lactose intolerant lack the enzyme (lactase) needed to

break down lactose

– Relatively insoluble in water

– Least sweet of all sugars

– Extracted from whey 23

 Maltose (Malt sugar)

– 2 glucose molecules linked together

– Primarily used in production of beer & breakfast cereals

– Adds malt taste to milk shakes and candy, and color

and flavor to beer

– Comes from the conversion of barley and other grain’s

starches during processing
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 Disaccharides (Reducing Sugar)
CH2OH CH2OH Produced from starch by
O O
β-amylase, an exo-enzyme.
OH OH OH
HO O
OH OH Hydrolyzed into glucose
by maltase in the intestine.
Maltose
-D-glucopyranosyl-(1->4)--D-glucopyranose

CH2OH CH2OH
HO O O
O Sugar in Milk
OH OH OH Enzyme: Lactase
OH OH Lactose Intolerance
Lactose
-D-galactopyranosyl-(1->4)--D-glucopyranose
 INVERT SUGAR
• a mixture of D-glucose and D-fructose that
is sweeter than sucrose
• occurs naturally in fruits and honey
• usually made commercially from a solution
of cane sugar by hydrolysis
(1g of citric acid/ascorbic acid per kg sugar)
• resists crystallisation
• major component of jams and syrups
(medicine)

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 Oligosaccharides
 Made up of three to 10 monosaccharides
 Two most common – Raffinose(three monosaccharides)
and stachyose (four monosaccharides)
 found in dried beans; not well-digested & result in gas as a by-
product
 Used as bulking agents in low-calorie foods & fat
replacers in beverages
 Not carcinogenic or cavity producing, as are
disaccharides
 Found in carrot, artichoke, chicory, leek, onion
 When consumed, undigested portion serves as food for
intestinal microflora
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Polysaccharides

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 Polysaccharides
 Polymers of monosaccharides (>10 monosaccharide units)
 Most polysaccharides: 200 – 3000 sugar units
 High molecular weight complex carbohydrates
 Linear or branched
 Sometimes called glycan – a term referring to poly- or
oligosaccharides

 Homoglycans -A-A-A-A-A-A-
 Cellulose, starch
 Heteroglycans -A-B-A-B-A-B-
-A-A-A-B-B-B-A-A-A
-B-B-A-B-B-A-B-B-A-B-A- -
A-A-A-A-A-A-
B B B
 Can be hydrolyzed by acids or enzymes but not by bases.
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 Composition of Polysaccharides
 Most common polysaccharides in food are starch,
glycogen, & fiber
 Contain many monosaccharides linked together
 2 types of Polysaccharides:
 Starch
 Water Soluble
 Can be hydrolyzed and digested

 Non-starch (dietary fibre)

 Cannot be digested nor absorbed in the intestine
 Water insoluble fibre: cellulose, hemicellulose
 Water soluble fibre: pectin, gums (hydrocolloids) 30
 Starch
 Digestible polysaccharide from plant sources
 Glucose derived from photosynthesis is stored as starch
 Body can break starch down into individual glucose
units for absorption
 In food, heat, enzymes, & acid are used to breakdown
starches into smaller, sweeter segments (called
dextrins)

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 Starch
• Polysaccharide - D-glucose units
Food % Starch
• Plant source Rice 75-78
• Roots/Tubers (Potato, Tapioca) Corn 71-74
• Cereal (Corn, Wheat, Rice) Sweet Potato 69-72
Wheat 67-68
• Used as a Food Ingredient Potato 65-85
– thickener and stabilizer (soups, sauces,
gravies)
* Content as % of dry natter
– filler, binder and fat substitute (pies,
puddings, processed meats)
 Starch Granules

•Differ in shape and size

•Have crystalline, ordered structure
- Compact & dense (ρ=1.5g/ml)
•Native starch granules - insoluble in cold water
- Heating in water changes physical properties of granules
 Amylose
• Long, linear chains of D-Glucose
(100s to 1000s molecules)

• α(1→4)-glycosidic bonds

• 20-30% of the starch granule α(1→4)-glycosidic bonds

• Flexible to twist into a helical
coil structure

• Turns blue-purple when iodine is

added
• Packs more tightly, thus slower
to digest than amylopectin
• Gelling property
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 Amylopectin
• Highly branched chains of D-
glucose

• α(1→4) linkages with

α(1→6) glycosidic branch
every 24 - 30 glucose units

• 70%-80% of the starch granule

• Branches are clustered and

occur as double helices

• Water Soluble
• Sticky, increase viscosity 35
 Starches
 Functions
 Moistness
 Flavor
 Texture
 Body (especially to soups)
 Appearance: Rich color & shine
 Fish, meats, vegetables: More appetizing &
appealing w/a sauce
 Properties of Starch Granules

• Native starch granules

– Insoluble in cold water
– Form a suspension (slurry)
– Turbid/opaque in appearance

• When heated in water, starch

granules undergo physicochemical
changes
– Change to viscous, thick starch
slurry or starch paste
– starch gel formation
Starch + Water Heat
Gelatinization
 Gelation

• As a starch paste cools, free amylose molecules lose

energy as the temperature decreases and form H-
bonds
• H-bonds create a network that holds the swelled
granules in place
• Turbid Viscoelastic Gel
• The more the amylopectin, the softer the gel
becomes
– Eg. Potato starch (high amylopectin)
= good thickening agent = soft gel
– Corn starch (less amylopectin)
= worse thickening agent = strong gel
 Glycogen (animal starch)

 Digestible polysaccharide from animal sources

 Starch stored by animal bodies in long chains of

glycogen in liver & muscles

 Glycogen in meat is converted to lactic acid during

slaughtering, so is not present after

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 Dietary Fibre
• Polysaccharides from plants that are not
digestible by enzymes in the small intestine
• No nutritional value – no calories (i.e. no
energy)

Health benefits
• Reduce constipation
• Reduce colon and breast cancer
• Reduce heart disease
• lower blood sugar
• reduce LDL-cholesterol

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 Types of Fibre
• Water insoluble fibre
• Does not form a gel
• Cellulose, hemicellulose - plant cell wall materials
• whole grain, bran, nuts, seeds
• green beans, cauliflower, celery
• Fruit skins (tomatoes)

• Water soluble fibre

• Some can form gels when mixed with water
• Pectin, soluble gums
• Often called hydrocolloids - polysaccharides that can be
hydrated and interact with water
• legumes (peas, soybean), oats
• apples, orange, bananas, berries
• broccoli and carrots
 Common fibers
Cellulose, hemicellulos (water insoluble), &
pectic substances (water soluble)
– Every cell composed partly of cellulose
– Long, non-branched chains of glucose; bonds
not digestible

Hemicellulous
– Composed of a mixture of monosaccharides

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 Pectin
• Water soluble
• Rich in ripe fruits
• Apple, peach, plum, grapefruit, orange
• Commercial pectins are mainly from citrus peel and apple

• Applications in Foods
• Gelling agent - fruit jellies and jams
• Texture of processed fruits
• Thickening agent - viscosity of purees and juices
• Cloud stability in fruit juices

• Applications in Nutrition
• Dietary fibre
• Bind toxic compounds. More effective than any other fibres.
 Pectic substances
• Polysaccharides found
between and within the cell
walls of fruit and vegetables

• Natural cementing agents

used in thickening jams,
jellies, & preserves

• Faster gelling: convenient,

texture improvement,
flavour enhancement

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 Inulin
• Repeating units of fructose with an end
molecule of glucose
• Soluble fiber
• Uses
– Imparts creamy texture to frozen dairy
– Improve texture of margarine
– Develop no-fat icings, fillings, whipped toppings

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 Vegetable gum
• Composed of simple sugars
• Gum fibers
– Used to thicken, increase viscosity of, gel,
stabilize, and/or emulsify certain processed
foods
– Impart body, texture, and mouthfeel to foods,
while reducing likelihood that dispersed
ingredients will separate out
– Used as stabilizer
– Control crystal growth

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 Guar gum
• Mannose + galactose joined together
• Mouth-feel to the dairy products
• Thickener, stabilizer, moisture retention
• Eg. Ice cream, salad dressing and baked goods

Locust bean gum

• Mannose + galactose joined together
• Provides heat shock resistance to ice cream
• Texture improvement
• Eg. Ice cream, gravy, sauces, cottage cheese
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Gums

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 Functions of CHO in foods
– Saccharides or sugars
• Contribute to sweetness, solubility, crystallization, color
(through browning), moisture absorption, texture,
fermentation, and even preservation
– Starches
• Used as thickening agent, edible film, and sweetener
source (syrups)

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 In baked goods, sugar contributes to…
• Texture
• Flavor
• Browning
• Fermentation of yeast
• Extending shelf life
• Adds body to soft drinks
• Offsets acidic, bitter, and salty tastes
 Artificial Sweeteners
• Aspartame
– First sold as NutraSweet
– Synthesized in 1965, FDA approved in 1974
– Damage to genes, induce cancer
– Breaksdown to aspartic acid: phenylalanine: methanol (4:5:1). Further
breaks down to formic acid and formaldehydes, resulting in “methanol
poisoning”.
• Stevia
– Extracted from leaves of stevia plant
– Upto 150 times sweeter than sugar
– Heat stable and pH stable
– Not fermentable
– No effect on blood glucose
– Licorice-like after taste

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 Glycemic Index (GI)
• the incremental area under the blood glucose response
curve of a 50g carbohydrate portion of a test food
expressed as a percent of the response to the same
amount of carbohydrate from a standard food taken by
the same subject.
• Developed to characterise food behaviour during human
digestion
• A measure of how quickly CHO breaks down during
digestion and release glucose into the bloodstream
• GI ranges from 0 to 100. Low GI foods have a score < 55
• GL – a measure of the total absorbable glucose in foods

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 low GI foods leads to:

-improved blood glucose

control
-better weight control by
reducing the appetite and
delaying hunger
-reduction of insulin levels
and fewer spikes of insulin
-a lower incidence of heart
disease and developing Type 2
diabetes

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 Supplementary Reading
• http://www.fao.org/docrep/w8079e/w8079e0
0.htm#Contents

• http://www.fao.org/docrep/w8079e/
w8079e07.htm#chapter 1 the role of
carbohydrates in nutrition

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