LS1001

Molecules of Life

Dr Bibekanand Mallick
Associate Professor
Department of Life Science
NIT Rourkela
 Molecules of Life
• Also called as biological molecule or building blocks of life

• These are substances that are produced by cells and living organisms

• Biomolecules have a wide range of sizes and structures and perform a

vast array of functions

• Based on size, they are divided into two types:

Macromolecules: size is more than 1000 dalton
Examples: Polysaccharides, Proteins, Nucleic Acid, Lipids

Micromolecules: size is less than 1000 dalton

Examples: Amino acid, Sugars, Nucleotides

1 Da: one-twelfth of the mass of a carbon-12

atom, about 1.660 538 86 × 10⁻²⁷ kilogram
 Biomolecules
• Based on location of synthesis, they are either endogenous (like
proteins) or exogenous (like pharmaceutical drugs) or they may be
totally synthetic

• Most biomolecules are organic compounds

• Just four elements—oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen—make up

96% of the human body's mass

• But many other elements, are present in small amounts

• The uniformity of biomolecules and metabolic pathways as invariant

features between the diversity of life forms is called "biochemical
universals"
 Macromolecules

• Perform complex tasks with precision

• Basic structure and function of each family similar in all organisms
(bacteria – humans)
• Main members are Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins and Nucleic Acids

Carbohydrate Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acid

Energy, Long term Catalysts, Genetic

Storage, storage, Hormones, information
Structure Insulation, Structure Storage
Protection

Starch Lipid Proteins DNA

Glycogen Fats Enzymes RNA
Glucose Oils
Sucrose Waxes
Cellulose
 Carbohydrates are the most
abundant biomolecules on Earth.

Each year, photosynthesis converts more than

100 billion metric tons of CO2 and H2O into
cellulose and other plant products.
 Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates are major sources of energy, relatively inexpensive, form
bulk of diet (sugars, starches and fibers) of humans throughout world

 Provides approximately 45 to 80% of total caloric intake

 Sugar and starch are converted into glucose during digestion and
absorbed into the blood circulation

 Some glucose can be converted to glycogen (animal starch) and stored

in muscle and liver as reserve store of energy

 Fibers cannot be digested and can helps as laxatives (increase stool

motility)
Carbohydrates have the following basic
composition:
I
the word “saccharide” is
derived from the Greek (CH2O)n or H - C - OH
sakcharon, meaning “sugar” I
Aldoses (e.g., Ketoses (e.g.,
 Monosaccharides - consist of a glucose) have an fructose) have a
single polyhydroxy aldehyde or aldehyde group at keto group, usually
one end.
ketone unit. at C2.

 Disaccharides - 2 monosaccharides H O
C CH2OH
covalently linked.
H C OH C O
 Oligosaccharides - consist of short HO C H HO C H
chains of monosaccharide units, or H C OH H C OH
residues, joined by characteristic H C OH H C OH
linkages called glycosidic bonds. CH2OH
CH2OH
 Polysaccharides - polymers D-glucose D-fructose
consisting of chains of
monosaccharide or disaccharide
units.
 Classification
• On the basis of number of sugar units or saccharides units present in their
structures

Carbohydrates

Polysaccharides
Disaccharides
Oligosaccharides (Contain more than
(made up of 2
(3-10 10
monosaccharides)
Monosaccharides monosaccharides) monosaccharide
Sucrose (Glucose +
(made up of 2-6 Raffinose units)
Fructose)
carbon units) (galactose, glu & Dextrin
Maltose (Glucose +
Glucose fruct) – beans, Starch
Glucose)
Fructose cabbage, broccoli Cellulose
Lactose (Glucose +
Galactose Stachyose Hemicellulose
Galactose)
(galactose (2), glu Pectin
Cellobiose (Glucose +
(1) & fruct (1)) Gums
Glucose)
Mucilages

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 Monosaccharides

The most abundant monosaccharide in nature is the six-carbon sugar D-

glucose (dextrose) followed by D–fructose. They are colorless, crystalline
solids that are freely soluble in water but insoluble in nonpolar solvents. Most
are of sweet taste.
 Glycosidic Bonds
The hydroxyl of one sugar and a hydroxyl of another sugar
or some other compound can join together, splitting out
water to form a glycosidic bond:
R-OH + HO-R'  R-O-R' + H2O
 Formation of Lactose & Sucrose

 Lactose, milk sugar, is composed of galactose & glucose, with

b(14) linkage

Sucrose, common table sugar, has a glycosidic bond linking the

glucose & fructose.
 Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides

Heteropolysaccharides
Homopolysaccharides
Eg: Starch, Glycogen,
Agar, vegetable gum
Cellulose
 Some Homopolysaccharides are stored forms of Fuel

The most important storage polysaccharides are starch in plant cells and
glycogen in animal cells. Both polysaccharides occur intracellularly as
large clusters or granules

Starch contains two types of glucose polymer, amylose and amylopectin

Cellulose, a major constituent of plant cell walls, consists of
long linear chains of glucose.

CH2OH 6CH OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

2
O 5 O O H O H O OH
H H H
H H H H H
OH H 1 O 4 OH H 1 O OH H O OH H O OH H
OH H H H
H 2 H
3
H OH H OH H OH H OH H OH
cellulose

Chitin is a linear homopolysaccharide composed of

N-acetylglucosamine residues
 Sources of carbohydrates
Category Name of carbohydrates
Simple carbohydrate or Sugars
Monosaccharides (single Glucose (dextrose)
sugar unit) Fructose (Levulose)
Galactose
Disaccharides Sucrose (Glucose + Fructose)
Maltose (Glucose + Glucose)
Lactose (Glucose + Galactose)
Complex carbohydrates or Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides Starch
Glycogen (animal starch)
Dextrin
Unavailable or dietary fibers
Water insoluble Cellulose, Hemicellulose, Lignin
Water soluble Pectins, gums, mucilages
Sources
Fruits, vegetables
Honey
On hydrolysis of lactose (milk
sugar)
Sugar cane, sugar beet
Sprouted and malted grains, On
acid hydrolysis of starch
Milk is the only source
Cereals, pulses, roots, tubers,
vegetables, and under-ripe fruits
Liver and muscle of freshly
slaughtered animals
Partial breakdown of starch by
dry heat or digestion
Structural fibers in whole grain
cereals, nuts, wheat, bran, figs,
vegetables, etc.
Non-structural fibers in apples,
citrus fruits, guava, oats, barley,
pulses, seaweeds, etc.
 Sugar derivatives
CH2OH CH2OH

H O H H O H
H H
OH H OH H
OH OH OH O OH
H NH2 H N C CH3
H
-D-glucosamine -D-N-acetylglucosamine

amino sugar - an amino group substitutes for a hydroxyl. An

example is glucosamine.
The amino group may be acetylated, as in N-
acetylglucosamine.
 Sugar derivatives

CH2OH COOH CHO

H C OH H C OH
H C OH
HO C H HO C H
H C OH
H C OH H C OH
H C OH
H C OH H C OH
CH2OH CH2OH COOH

D-ribitol D-gluconic acid D-glucuronic acid

 sugar alcohol - lacks an aldehyde or ketone; e.g., ribitol.

 sugar acid - the aldehyde at C1, or OH at C6, is oxidized to
a carboxylic acid; e.g., gluconic acid, glucuronic acid.
 Glycoconjugates
Glycoconjugates are molecules of carbohydrates bound to other
compounds, such as proteins and lipids.

Proteoglycans
 Glycosaminoglycans (GAG) bonded to
proteins.
 GAGs present in the proteoglycans also
known as mucopolysaccharides, which
consists of long unbranched molecules of
repeating disaccharide units.
 The carbohydrate content in these
conjugates are about 50-60%.

Functions:
 Generation and differentiation of neurons
 Regulation of invasion and metastasis of
tumors
 signal transduction pathways implicated in
the proliferation of cells and cell shape
changes
 Glycoproteins (Sugar + Protein)

 Oligosaccharides bonded to proteins

 Glycoproteins occur in most organisms, from bacteria to human
beings wherein carbohydrate content is about 10-15%.

Functions Examples
Provide strength and stability to the tissue. Collagen
Helps in clotting of blood Prothrombin, thrombin,
and fibrinogen
Protect epithelial surfaces of respiratory, urinary, Mucin
digestive, and reproductive tracts.
Hormones Human chorionic
gonadotropin (HCG),
Erythropoietin (EPO),
thyroid-stimulating
hormone (TSH)
Provides immunity to the body Immunoglobulins
(antibodies)
Transports iron in the blood stream and delivers it Transferrin
to various tissues
Enzymes Alkaline phosphatase
 Glycolipids (Sugar + Lipid)
Lipopolysaccharides are present on the outer membrane of gram-negative
bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium.

These molecules are prime targets of the antibodies produced by the

vertebrate immune system in response to bacterial infection.

Bacterial Lipopolysaccharide
 Digestion, Absorption, and Metabolism of Carbohydrates
• Fasting level of glucose in blood is maintained at 70-100 mg / 100 mL of blood
• After having meal rich in carbohydrates – level raised to 140-150 mg / 100 mL
of blood
• Hyperglycemia – High sugar level, Hypoglycemia – Low sugar level

Insulin Glycolysis Oxidized to

Taken by the
Glucose in blood pyruvic acid
cells
Citric acid cycle

ATP – Adenosine Tri Electrons added to Electron Release CO2

Phosphate (energy) – Oxygen to produce Transport and H2O

used by the cells for Water Chain

functions (process produces Electrons
ATP)

Waste products like

CO2 and water
released by body Energy released is used by both for various
voluntary and involuntary processes and to maintain
body temperature
 Catabolism of
Glucose
Glycolysis: ATP via
Substrate level
phosphorylation
Respiration: pyruvate
oxidized by Krebs Cycle;
Electron Transport Chain-
generation of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) by the
movement of hydrogen ions
Fermentation: Lack of
Fermentation
respiration; pyruvate is only 2-4 ATP
reduced to another organic;
little ATP yield by SLP.

Aerobic Respiration 38 ATP

 Functions of Carbohydrates
Chief function – To provide energy for daily work and to maintain body temperature

Central nervous system is able to use only glucose as energy source.

Brain does not work when blood glucose levels falls and convulsion may occur

Carbohydrates are required for complete oxidation of fats. In deficiency of carbohydrates, fats are broken
down for energy and intermediate products such as ketones are formed in large amounts resulting in a
condition called ketosis

Carbohydrates can be converted to non-essential amino acids and can be a source of nitrogen

Lactose helps in absorption of minerals calcium and phosphorous

Fibers and lactose helps some bacteria grows in intestine. This bacteria is able to synthesize B-complex
vitamins in the gut

Dietary fibers play important role in increasing fecal mass by absorbing and holding water, stimulating
peristalsis, and eliminating fecal waste

Fiber also helps in lowering blood cholesterol levels by binding bile acids and cholesterol
 Excess Carbohydrates

Excessive consumption of refined sugars will results in dental caries or tooth decay

Excessive sugar depresses appetite, provides hollow calories, and could result in
malnutrition

High intake of sugar and refined carbohydrates increase the blood triglyceride levels
leading to heart diseases

When excessive carbohydrates are consumed, they are converted into fat and
deposited in the adipose tissue, which could lead to obesity, i.e. body weight of 20
percent or more than the desirable weight

Excessive fibre could irritate the intestinal lining, causing cramps or bloating due to gas
formation

Excessive fibre interferes with the absorption and availability of mineral elements such
as iron and calcium
Proteins: Polymers of Amino Acids

• 20 different amino acids: many combinations

• Proteins are made in the RIBOSOME
 Amino Acids

R1 20 different types

NH2 C COOH R1 R2
H R2 NH2 C CO NH C COOH

NH2 C COOH H H

Amino acid Polypeptide Protein

 Amino Acids

amino R acid
NH2 C COOH
H

The free amino and carboxylic acid groups have pKa’s

NH3+ NH2 COOH COO-
pKa ~ 9.4 pKa ~ 2.2
R
+NH
3 C COO-
H
At physiological pH (7.4), amino acids are zwitterions
Substances having this dual nature are amphoteric and are often called
ampholytes (from “amphoteric electrolytes”).
Amino Acids
Peptides Are Chains of Amino Acids

Formation of a peptide bond

by condensation.

The pentapeptide Ser–Gly–Tyr–Ala–Leu.

Peptides are named beginning with the
amino terminal residue, which by
convention is placed at the left.
 Biologically Active Peptides and Polypeptides
Occur in a Vast Range of Sizes

• Even the smallest peptides can have biologically

important effects.
• Commercially synthesized dipeptide L-aspartyl-L-
phenylalanine methyl ester, the artificial sweetener better
known as aspartame or NutraSweet.
• A number of vertebrate hormones are small peptides.

• Oxytocin (nine amino acid residues), which is secreted by the posterior pituitary and
stimulates uterine contractions
• Bradykinin (nine residues), which inhibits inflammation of tissues;
• Thyrotropin-releasing factor (three residues), which is formed in the hypothalamus
and stimulates the release of another hormone, thyrotropin, from the anterior
pituitary gland.
• Some extremely toxic mushroom poisons, such as amanitin, are also small
peptides (8a.a), as are many antibiotics.
Properties of Proteins
Conjugated Proteins
Hierarchy/Levels of Protein Structure
 Secondary Structure
The  Helix Is a
Common Protein
Secondary Structure

H bond between every 4th amino acid

R group sticks out of helix

H bond between a.a of adjacent strand

R group sticks out in alternating fashion of up and down
 Loops and Turns
• Loops – Contains hydrophilic amino acid, Found on surface of
proteins, connects alpha helix and beta sheet, irregular in
length
• Turns – Loops with <5 a.a, beta turns are the common one,
type 1 and type II beta turns, have H bond in them
 Tertiary Structure
 The overall three-dimensional arrangement of all atoms in a protein is
referred to as the protein’s tertiary structure.
 Amino acids that are far apart in the polypeptide sequence and that
reside in different types of secondary structure may interact within the
completely folded structure of a protein.

Specific structures result from

long-range interactions
 Electrostatic (charged)
interactions
 Hydrogen bonds (OH, N
H, S  H)
 Hydrophobic interactions

Fibrous proteins: polypeptide chains arranged in long strands or sheets

Globular proteins: Polypeptide chains folded into a spherical or globular
shape.
 Quaternary Structure
Definition: Organization of multiple chain associations
 Oligomerization- Homo (self), Hetero (different)
 Used in organizing single proteins and protein
machines

 Specific structures result from long-range interactions

 Electrostatic (charged) interactions
 Hydrogen bonds (OH, N H, S  H)
 Hydrophobic interactions
 Disulfides only VERY infrequently
Protein Quaternary Structures Range from Simple
Dimers to Large Complexes

The classic example-

hemoglobin 2-b2
 How Does a Protein Find Its Fold?
Amino terminus Carboxyl terminus
N C
Residue number 1 2 3 4

• 20 different amino acids: many combinations

Levinthal's paradox
In 1969, Cyrus Levinthal noted that, because of the very large
number of degrees of freedom in an unfolded polypeptide
chain, the molecule has an astronomical number of possible
conformations
The hydrophobic effect is the major driving force  A 100 residue protein
would require 1052 years
Other forces providing stability to the folded state to search all
 Hydrogen bonds conformations (1070)
 Electrostatic interactions  Most proteins fold in less
 Chemical cross links- Disulfides, metal ions than 10 s!!
 Lipids

• Contains – C, H, O, sometimes N and P

• Generally insoluble in water (hydrophoic) and soluble in

non-polar organic solvents (acetone)

• On hydrolysis gives fatty acids

Functions
• Long term energy reserve (adipocytes)
• Structural components of cells
• Hormones – Androgen, testosterone, cortisol, glucocorticoids etc
• Dietary fat acts as carrier of lipid soluble vitamins A,D,E & K

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 Fatty acids
• Fatty acids are carboxylic acid consisting of a hydrocarbon (HC) chain
and a terminal COOH group, occurring as esters in fats and oils

Hydrocarbon chain

Two types of fatty acids based on their availability

• Non-essential fatty acids: Fatty acids which can be synthesized in
human body

• Essential fatty acids: Fatty acids which cannot be synthesized in

human body (linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic acid)

• Plants can synthesize all fatty acids

 Fatty acids
Two types of fatty acids based on their structure
• Saturated fatty acids
• they do not have double bonds, their melting point is high (e.g., palmitic
acid and stearic acid)
• Unsaturated fatty acids
• They have one or more double bonds. Have low melting points.
• Monounsaturated fatty acid – only one double bond. E.g. Oleic acid –
omega-9-fatty acid (olive oil, corn oil)
• Polyunsaturated fatty acid – more than one double bonds. E.g. Linoleic acid
(2), Linolenic acid (3), Arachidonic acid (4) – groundnut oil, soyabean oil,
sesame oil, animal fats, tuna fish, salmon fish
• Higher the number of double bonds, higher the unstable the fat is
• Double bonds are highly reactive to oxygen and hence polyunsaturated fat /
oil becomes rancid (spoiled) soon
Fatty acid - Omega-3 and Omega-6 fatty acids
• Omega (w) is last letter of Greek alphabet used by scientists to name
fatty acids
• End most double bonds are on 3rd and 6th carbon from methyl end
• Diet having right proportion of omega 3 and omega 6 fatty aids helps in
reducing blood cholesterol levels
 Omega-3 Fatty acids
• Polyunsaturated fatty acids
• Olive oil, fish oil, mustard oil, soya bean, flax seed, fenugreek seeds,
mackerel, black gram, rajma, and green leafy vegetables
• Alpha Linolenic acid (ALA) (18:3 w3) – 18 carbon length, last double bond
between 3rd and 4th carbon from the methyl / omega end (Soyabean oil,
seasame oil, butter)
• Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) (20:5 w3) – 20 carbon length, last double bond
between 3rd and 4th carbon from the methyl / omega end (fish oils)
• Eating 200-300 g of fish per week or 15-20 g of flax seeds daily meets
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) (0.5-1.0 g/day of omega-3 fats)

(18:3 w3)

(20:5 w3)
 Omega-6 Fatty acids
• Polyunsaturated fatty acids
• Safflower, sunflower, cottonseed, corn, sesame, and groundnuts
• Linoleic acid (18:2 w6) – 18 carbon length, first double bond between 6th and
7th carbon from the methyl / omega end (sunflower, salmon, tuna, cottonseed,
corn, soyabean, groundnut)
• Arachidonic acid (20:4 w6) – 20 carbon length, first double bond between 6th
and 7th carbon from the methyl / omega end (Animal fats, groundnut)

Mammalian cells lack the enzyme omega-3 desaturase and therefore cannot
convert omega-6 fatty acids to omega-3 fatty acids, which is why certain omega-
3 fatty acids are also essential.
 Classification of Lipids
Butter, Cream,
Fats
Simple Lipids Hydrogenated fat
(3 fatty acids +
glycerol) Groundnut, Sesame,
Oils Sunflower, Safflower,
Rice bran, Olive

Phospholipids Lecithin

Lipids (based HDL, LDL,VLDL,

Lipoproteins
on structure) Compound Lipids Chylomicrons

Diglycerides,
monoglycerides,
Derived Lipids
glycerol and fatty
acids

Cholesterol

Sterols
Fat soluble
Vitamins A,D,E, and K
vitamins
 Simple Lipids
• Constitute 98% of food and body fats
• Made up of three fatty acids attached to glycerol
• Mixed triglycerides which means that more than one type of fatty acid is
present in fat
• E.g. cooking oils and butter

48
 Compound Lipids
• Fats in which at least one fatty acid is replaced by carbohydrate,
protein or phosphorous (fats + non-fat molecule)
E.g. phospholipids, glycolipids, and lipoprotein
• Membranes are made of phospholipids, glycolipids, lipoproteins and
integral membrane proteins
 Phospholipids
• Phosphatidylcholine
• Phosphatidylserine
• Phosphatidylethanolamine
• Sphingomyelin (serine replaces glycerol backbone)
• Phosphatidylinositol (one of the less common types)

Hydrophilic
(soluble)

Hydrophobic
(not soluble
= lipophilic)
 Glycolipids
• Pattern of sugar residues is variable
• Always in outer leaflet of cell membrane, & inner leaflet of organelles
• Blood groups ???

Hydrophilic
(soluble)

Hydrophobic
(not soluble
= lipophilic)
 Although a minor membrane component (~2%), glycolipids have
some special functions

• Gangliosides in neurons
• Oligosaccharides with negatively charged sialic acid residues
• Attract positive ions, e.g. Ca++
• Affects electrical properties & signaling
 Lipoproteins
Lipid-protein complexes are called lipoproteins
Includes
Chylomicrons (Least amount of protein)
Very Low Density Lipoproteins (VLDL) (Low amount of protein)
Low Density Lipoproteins (LDL) (Moderate amount of protein)
High Density Lipoproteins (HDL) (Higher amount of proteins)

• Low density lipoprotein (LDL)

• Often referred to as bad cholesterol
• LDL carries cholesterol from liver to cells
• If too much is carried, too much for the cells to use, there can be a harmful
buildup of LDL
• This lipoprotein can increase the risk of arterial disease if level is too high
• Most human blood contains approximately 70% LDL – this may vary
depending on the person
• High density lipoprotein (HDL)
• Often referred to as good cholesterol
• HDL prevents arterial disease
• HDL carries cholesterol away from cells and carry back to liver. In the liver,
cholesterol is either broken down or expelled from the body as waste.
Lipids in diseases
 Sterols or Steroids
• Sterols or steroids contain 4 fused hydrocarbon rings called cyclopentane
perhydro phenanthrene rings and a long side chain
• Examples: Cholesterol (animals), stigmasterol (plants), campesterol,
sitosterol, ergosterol (fungus)
• Cholesterol helps in absorption of fatty acids, sex hormones, vitamin D and
bile salts
• Excess of cholesterol in blood causes atherosclerosis (hardening of
arteries)
 Cholesterol
• Fat-like substance present in food
• Present in all cells of body and in large amounts in brain and nerve tissues
• If consumed in excess it will cause cardiovascular diseases
• Normal blood cholesterol level for adults should be below 200 mg/100 mL
blood

Functions of cholesterol
• Precursor of all steroid hormones (sex hormones)
• Precursor of vitamin D,7-dehydrocholesterol which is present in skin and
gets converted to vitamin D upon UV irradiation
• Required for formation of bile
• Essential constituent of cell membranes

Sources of cholesterol to human body

• Synthesis in liver
• Food rich in cholesterol (animal foods only – whole milk, butter, ghee,
cream, egg yolk, organ meat, shell fish)
 Nucleic Acids
• DNA or RNA are called nucleic acids because of the acidic nature of the
phosphate group attached to them.
• The phosphate group is negatively charged because it donates protons in
solution. An acid is identified by its ability to donate protons.
DNA and RNA are nucleic acids, long, thread-like polymers made up of a
linear array of monomers called nucleotides

• Nucleic Acids
– DNA and RNA
– Polymers of nucleotides

• All nucleotides contain three

components:
1. A nitrogen heterocyclic base
2. A pentose sugar
3. A phosphate residue
– Without phosphate
nucleotide is called as
nucleoside
 Nitrogenous bases A G

•2 purine bases
•Bases •Adenine: A
•Guanine: G
•Pyrimidines
•Purines

C T U

•2 pyrimidine bases
•Cytosine: C
•Thymine: T
•or Uracil: U
(in RNA, instead of Thymine)
 Pentose Sugar
• Carbons are numbered clockwise 1’ to 5’
• DNA – 2’ Deoxyribose sugar
• 2’ deoxyribose – 2’ position
• OH group is replaced by H
 DNA Nucleotide

Phosphate
Group
O
5
O=P-O CH2
O
O
N
Nitrogenous base
C4 C1 (A, G, C, or T)
Sugar
(deoxyribose) 3
C C2
 Polymer of Nucleotides
• nucleotides can be linked
• phosphates linked to 2 pentoses
• phosphodiester linkages
• Link PO4 at
• 5’ end to 3’ OH of next nucleotide

• chain has POLARITY

–distinct ends
•5’ end
•3’ end
–usually “read” 5’ -> 3’ 5’end: always has attached
phosphate groups
3’ end: free hydroxyl
(-OH) group
 The salient features of
Watson-Crick model of DNA
three-dimensional structure
can be listed as follows:

 DNA is a double-stranded
helix, with the two strands
connected by hydrogen
bonds. A bases are always
paired with Ts, and Cs
always paired with Gs as per
Chargaff's rule.
 Most DNA double helices
are right-handed, except Z-
DNA, which is left-handed.
 The DNA double helix is
anti-parallel, which means
• The bases of DNA are connected via hydrogen
that the 5' end of one strand
bonding. In addition, the outer edges of the nitrogenous
is paired with the 3' end of
bases are also available for potential hydrogen bonding
its complementary strand
with other molecules, such as the proteins that bind and
(and vice versa).
play vital roles in the replication and expression of DNA.
 The store of the genetic information: DNA

• DNA is the store of the

genetic information

• It is the principal
regulator of the cell
physiology

• DNA contains the

instructions for creation
and functioning of the
organism, it acts as:
Template for replication
Codes for proteins
 The major differences between DNA and RNA

DNA RNA
Sugar Deoxyribose ribose
Nitrogenous A, T, G, C A, U, G, C
bases
Structure It is double-stranded ‘ladder’ It is usually single stranded
structure with sugar-phosphate
backbone, and nitrogenous
bases stacked inside like steps
of a ladder.
Location Present in the nucleus. Small It forms in the nucleolus and then
amount is also present in the leaves to different regions of the
mitochondria. cytoplasm.
Function Storage as well as transmission Participate in protein synthesis and
of genetic information. gene regulations
Propagation It’s self-replicating in nature.It’s synthesized from DNA.
Stability The C-H bonds in DNA make it The O-H bond in the ribose of RNA
stable. makes it more reactive compared
to DNA. RNA is not stable under
alkaline conditions.
Damage by UV DNA is susceptible to UV RNA is relatively resistant to UV
damage. damage compared to DNA