Culture - Important Definition

Lifestyle

First person who

Talked about the culture

Man has made it

He has also given need
theory of culture
Classification Of Culture

ii) The other aspect of culture is Abstract, non-physical and non-material. It includes ideas,
knowledge, tradition Belief, art and so on. It is called non-material culture.
Culture, Society and History
• Arts of Indus Valley Civilisation Or Harappan Civilisation
Pottery, Bronze, Stone Statues, Terracota images, beads ornaments,
clothing and garment
Stone Statues - Bearded Man (Priest Man, Priest-King)
trefoil pattern art
Indus Valley Civilisation Or Harappan
Civilisation
• As per evidences found from many archeological excavations done during late 19th century to 20th century,
Harappan period is the ancient most civilization of India and contemporary to Mesopotamian(ancient Iraq) and
Egyptian civilization.

It was a five thousand year old civilization and represented an advanced level of cultural development during an
epoch when iron was still not discovered and bronze was used for making tools, implements and arms.
Mahenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal etc. were some of the major cities of the period. There was a certain
unity of conception among the various cities. A Harappan city was divided into two parts - the one settled on a
raised platform for the rulers and the lower city meant for the common people. The houses were built, in some
cases, of baked bricksand in other cases of mud bricks. These bricks were of standard size which showed that the
brick making was organized on a large scale.

Similar to the town-planning, the potteries made by the Harappans were found in large areas and showed a
uniform pattern. In fact, their tradition of pottery making can, with many changes, be found even today. Art works
in terracotta and sculptures in bronze and stone are other important remains from the Harappan period. The
Harappan potteries and seals contain Figures of bull, ram, pipal tree, fish scales etc. The Harappans also seemed to
worship pipal tree and the phallus (animage of Shiva) which remain important religious symbols in today's India.
Arc hi t ec t ure – The G r eat Bat h, The Gr ana r y at har r a ppa, The Pi l l ar ed ha l l of M ohe nj od ar o, The Do ckyar d at l ot hal , Ci t ade l
The Granary at harappa: The so-called "granary" of Harappa is found on Mound F. It is a brick
structure that was built on a massive brick foundation over 45 meters north south and 45 meters east-
west.
Terracotta , Seals
Mauryan Period Art (Sramans Tradition)
Mauryan Period Art (Sramans Tradition)
 The Vedic Civilization
The Vedic Civilization, associated with the coming of the Aryans to India, is said to have begun about
1500 B.C and lasted about 600 B.C. It was an agricultural civilization. During this period many
features associate with what has come to be called as Hinduism originated and took shape.

It has left its imprint on our culture today in the form of settled agriculture, cattle breeding, centrality
of cow (and bullocks) in our economy and religious beliefs, the horse, the chariot, the use of iron,
domestication of animals such as elephants, kinship and patriarchy as basis of social organizations,
the development of kingdom and large empires.

We still have with us the Vedic hymns composed almost 3500 years ago whish even today areused in
many Hindu rituals, the sacredness of fire as intermediary between god and man, theworship of gods
associated with natural phenomena, the doctrine of transmigration, animal sacrifice etc. In terms of
literature and philosophical thought it has given us the Vedas, the Upanishads, Sanskrit, Pali and
Prakrit languages and literature etc.

Four Vedas – The Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda.
Geographical- Rig Vedic people lived in Sapt Sindhu
region i.e. land of seven rivers
The Dasrajan War – During Rig Ved

• According to Rig Veda this war was fought between Sudas and ten
kings and in the end Sudas (Indo-Aryan tribal king of the Bhāratas)
won the battle.
• The battle was fought on the bank of river Parushni (Ravi)
• Ten kings were from (Purus, Yadus, Turvasas, Anus, Druhyus, Alinas,
Pakhtas, Bhulanas, Sibis and Vaishanins)
Polity During Vedic Period

• The Kula means family was basis of both social and political
organisation
• Form of government was patriarchal nature
• The rashtra was ruled by a king of Raja
• Purohit (brahmin) was the first ranking official
• Other important royal officials were Senani and Gramani.
• Kula The GramaThe VisThe JanaThe Rashtra
Continued…

• The King had religious duties also

• Sabha, Samiti Vidath, Gana (as state) were the assemblies. Later
vedas record that the Sabha functioned as a court of justice
• The army consisted of foot-soldier and charioteers. Wood stone,
bone, and metals were used in weapons
• Theft, burglary, Stealing of cattle, and cheating were prevent crimes
Society During Vedic Era

• Teachers and priest were called Brahmanas

• Rulers and administrators were called Kshatriya
• Farmers, merchant and bakers were called Vaishyas
• Artisans and labourers were reckoned as Shudra
• Child marriage was not in vogue
• Father’s property was inherited by the son only
Religion During Vedic civilisation
• Later Vedic Period
The centre is shifted from Ganges to Sarasvati
More rivers mentioned such as Narmada, Sadanira (Gandak),
Chambal etc.
Emergence of Janpads like Kuru and Panchal
King-ship culture – without army
Criminal activities were increased
Janpad = Group of people
Literature mentioned Vindhya mountain
India was divided into three physical division – Madhya Desh (centre India) ,
Dakhin Pat (south India), Aryavarta (Northen India)
Polity at Later Vedic Period
• In Taittariya Brahmana we notice the theory of the divine origin of kingship
• New Civil functionaries added:
Bhagadudha (collector of taxes)
Suta/Sarathi the royal herald of charioteer
Khasttri – chamberlain (manager)
Ashavapa – courier
King still do not posses any standing army
Judiciary also grew at that time. King plays great role in administering
criminal law
 Society at that time

• As the time passed yajnas become elaborate and

complicated ceremonial leading to the emergence of
learned men as Brahmanas
• The institution of Gotra i.e. the clan appeared in later
vedic period
• The higher caste could marry with the lower ones, but
marriage with shudras was not permitted
• 4 Ashramas and 4 purusharthas came into existence
• Status of women declined
• Three evils – liquor, woman and dice
• Though monogamy was the ideal but polygamy was
frequent
Religion at that time
Economy During Later Vedic Civilization
 The Buddhist Epoch

• During the 6th century B C.Mahavir Swamy and Gautam Buddha were the two great
religious leaders of this period. By thestrength of their ideas they can be said to be among
the greatest in the world. The Jain andBuddha religions emerged as a result of teachings of
Mahavir and Gautam Buddha respectively. Buddhism spread far and wide and, atone point
of time, almost the whole of Asia, which represented the apex of civilization,became
influenced by Buddhism. In lndia also, Buddhism held influence for almost one
thousandyears and greatly influenced Indian culture and society. Many concepts and
values of thisperiod are among our most cherished cultural heritage today.
• Jainism and Buddhism represented a revolt against the concept of social inequality and the
hierarchal Varnashram system preached by the Brahmins. These regions openedtheir gates
to members of all castes and groups in the society. Nonviolence,humanism and stress on
moral life were the hallmarks of these new religiousorders.
• One of the tools of the Brahminical domination was the stress on the language of
theVedas, that is, Sanskrit. The new religions put more emphasis on the popular
languageslike Prakrit, Pali and Ardha Magadhi. Buddhist and Jain texts were written in
these languages and nobody was debarred from reading or interpreting them.
• This period also witnessed the rise of architecture and sculpture to new heights. The
temples at Jhandial (Takshashila), Nagari (Rajasthan), Besnagar (Madhya Pradesh) and
Nagarjunakonda(Andhra Pradesh) are some of the structures found in excavations.
• The Buddhist Stupas, in which the mortal remains of important personalities are to be
found,are distributed in Bodh Gaya (Bihar), Sanchi and Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh),
Amaravatiand Nagarjunkonda (Andhra Pradesh) and Takshashila (now in Pakistan).
• Cave architecture and cave paintings reached new heights and the Mathura,
Gandhara and Amaravati schools of art produced figures of great beauty during this
period. All these places, monuments and figures are of great touristic interests even
today and every yearthousands of pilgrims or tourists visit these sites.
• During this period South India witnessed the rise of Satavahanas, one of the
greatestIndian rulers, in the 1st century B.C. They heldsway in most of the Deccan and
on their collapse, other powers like the Cholas, Pandyas,Keralaputras etc. arose.The
celebrated sangam poetry in Tamil was collected and classified by an academy
ofscholars.
. The Gupta Period (319 AD to 540 AD)
• In the 4th century AD a new dynasty, the
Guptas, arose in Magadha and
established a large kingdom over the greater
part of Northern India.
• Their rule lasted for 200 years
• The period is referred to the Classical age of
golden age
• According to epigraphic evidence, the
founder of the dynasty was a person named
Gupta. He used the simple title of Maharaja
• Gupta was succeeded by his son Ghatotkach,
who also inherited the title of Maharja
The Gupta Empire: A Detailed Summary

• The Gupta Empire is referred to as the Golden Age of India because of

the extensive inventions and discoveries in science, technology,
engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy,
religion and philosophy that illuminated the elements of Hindu
Culture.
• The Gupta Empire came into power in around 275 AD. It marked the
end of 500 hundred years of domination of the provincial powers and
resulting disquiet that began with the fall of the Mauryas.
 Dynastic History of Gupta Empire

• Srigupta
He founded the Gupta Dynasty in the 3rd century AD.
He used the title of Maharaja.
• Gatotkacha Gupta
He succeeded Srigupta.
He also took the title of Maharaja.
• Chandra Gupta I (319-334 AD)
He assumed the title of ‘Maharajadhiraja’.
He started the Gupta Era in 319 AD which marked the date of his accession.
He married Lichchavi princess Kumaradevi and started matrimonial alliance
that helps him to control the portion of Bihar and Nepal.
Cont…

• Chandra Gupta I (319-334 AD)

He assumed the title of ‘Maharajadhiraja’.
He started the Gupta Era in 319 AD which marked the date of his accession.
He married Lichchavi princess Kumaradevi and started matrimonial alliance that helps him to control the portion of Bihar and Nepal.
• Samundra Gupta (335-380 AD)
He has been called the “Indian Napoleon” by V.A Smith because of his extensive military conquests.
Virasen was his commander-in-chief during southern campaign
Vasubandhu was his minister who was a famous Buddhist scholar.
Eran inscription (Madhya Pradesh) is a useful source of information of his campaign.
He was devotee of Vishnu though a follower of the Brahmanical religion. He granted permission to the Buddhist king Meghavarman
(King of Cylon) to build monasteries to Bodh Gaya.
He assumed the titles of Vikramanka and Kaviraja.
• Chandra Gupta II (380-412 AD)
He is credited with the maintaining in his court nine gems (Navrantnas) - Kalidas, Amarsinh, Dhanvantiri, Varahminhira, Vararuchi,
Ghatakarna, Kshapranak, Velabhatt and Shanku.
Fa-hein visit India during his reign.
Adopted the title of “Vikramaditya”.
He was the first Gupta ruler who had started silver coin.
The exploits of a king called Chandra are glorified in an iron pillar inscription fixed near Qutub Minar in Delhi.
Some historians put Ramagupta between Samundra Gupta and Chandra Gupta II. In the play Devichandraguptam of Visakhdatta,
Rama Gupta was the elder brother of Chandra Gupta II.
• He rescued Druvadevi from the saka king and later marries her.
• Kumara Gupta I (413-467 AD)
He was the son of Dhruvadevi who extended the Gupta Empire from North
Bengal to Kathiawar and from the Himalayas to the Narmada.
During his reign, Hunas invaded India.
He founded Nalanda University.

• Skanda Gupta (455-467 AD)

He repulsed the ferocious Hunas attacks twice and his heroic feat entitled
him the title of ‘Vikaramaditya’ as inscribed on Bhitari Pillar inscription.
He was Vaishnava but followed the tolerant policy of his predecessors.
Administration of Gupta Empire

• All the power was concentrated with the king. Often an element of divinity was attached to the
kings.
• • The king adopted the titles of such as Paramveshvara, Maharajadhiraj and Parambhattaraka.
Kingship was hereditary but there was no a firm of primogeniture.
• • The Gupta rulers has organised a huge army.
• • Forced labour or Vishti was also practised in royal Army.
• • The king acted as the fountainhead and decided all disputes in general, punishments were light
and mild.
• • A council of ministers and civil officials assisted the king
• • The most important officers in the Gupta Empire were the Kumaramatyas.
• • The royal seal bore the imprint of Garuda. Started in the Deccan by the Satavahanas, the
practice of granting land and fiscal administrative concessions the priests and administrators
became regular affairs in the Gupta times.
• • A new office of Sandhivigrhaka was created during Samundra Gupta who was responsible for
the peace and war. Harisena held this title.
Art and Architecture during the Gupta Empire
• Most remarkable was the Bhitari monolithic pillar of Skandagupta.
• Nagara and Dravidian styles of art came during this period.
• There was absence of growth of Gandhara style.
• But Mathura’s one pleasant standing Buddha statue shows a little Greek style.
• The temple at Deogarh near Jhansi, the sculptures in the temple at Garhwas (near Allahabad) was great source of showing effects of the Gupta art.
• The unearthed statue of Buddha at Sarnath is a symbol of Gupta art.
• Most of the paintings are seen at Bagh caves near Gwalior which shows the greatness and preciseness of Gupta art.
• The paintings of Ajantha mostly demonstrate the life of the Buddha.
• Kalidasa was a great poet and play writer during Chandragupta II. His master-piece was the Shakuntala. His other plays are
Malavikagnimitra ,Vikramorvasiya and Kumarasambhava. His two lyrics are Ritusamhara and Meghaduta.
• During the Gupta period Metallurgy also made a wonderful impact. The craftsmen were expert in their art of casting metal statues and pillars.
• The most antique item in Sultanganj which is the huge copper statue of Buddha. This is now kept at Birmingham museum, was of seven and a half
feet height and a ton weight. The Delhi Iron pillar of the Gupta period is rust free even today.
• Chandragupta II and his successors also issued gold, silver and copper coins.
• Samudragupta was a great poet. Samudragupta patronized Harisena. Harisena was a one of the scholars.
• Dandin was the author of Kavyadarsa and Dasakumaracharita.
• Vasavadatta was written by Subhandhu.
• Visakadatta was other renowned author of this period. He was the author of two drams: Mudrarakshasa and Devichandraguptam.
• The Panchatantra stories were composed by Vishnusarma during the Gupta period.
• Sudraka was a renowned poet. He wrote his book Mrichchakatika.
• Bharavi’s Kritarjuniya is the story of discriminations between Arjuna and Siva.
• • The Buddhist author Amarasimha created Amarakosa.
• Established by Chandra Gupta I in 319-20 A.D., the Gupta power reached its peak during the
reign of Samudra Gupta and Chandra Gupta II. Gupta period is often described as representing
the highest forms of Indian culture. So far as the literary and philosophical achievements are
concerned, there is truth in this statement. The sanskrit epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata,
though composed in earlier times, are said to be collected during this period. The Hindu
thinkers developed a cyclic theory of time according to which the Kalpa was divided into 4 ages
(Satyug, Tretayug, Dwaparyug and Kaliyug) and at the end of which the Universe is recreated.
• This period also witnessed the composition of six great systems of Hindu philosophy - Nyaya,
Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimansa and Vedanta. The Puranas (the Hindu religious texts and
historical sources) were also composed in this period.
• Great developments took place in the fields of Indian astronomy, astrology and mathematics.
Aryabhatta and Varahamihira were some of the great astronomers of the period. Kalidas, the
greatest of the Indian literary figures, composed his poetic and dramatic worksduring this
period. His epic poems, Kumar sambhava and Raghuvamsha, the lyrical poem Meghaduta and
the great drama Shakuntala are considered among the greatest of the world literature. Later on
Shudrak (Mrichchha Katika) and Banabhatta (Harsha Charita) contributed to this great literary
tradition. The fables of Panchatantra were collected and scripted. Vatsayayan's Kamasutra, the
world - famous text on sexual enjoyment was also written during this period. In terms of
architectural or sculptural developments also the Gupta period was significant.
The Early Medieval Period
• After Harshavardhan, new kingdoms and dynasties emerged. They were big
landlords or warrior chiefs who emerged close to 7th century. The Kings
acknowledged them as Samanthas, and received gift from these samanthas, who
provided the militray support to the kings in need.
• They often declared themselves as ‘maha-samanthas’ and ‘maha-mahadaleshvara’.
For instance, the Rashtrakutas in Deccan, who were initially they were subordinate
to Chalukyas of Karnataka. In mid 8th century they gained control over the land.
• There were Brahmin rulers like the Kadamba Mayurasharman in Karnataka and
Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandara in Rajasthan.
• “Tripartite Struggle” between the Rashtrakutas, Palas and Gurjara- Pratihara fought
to control Kanauj, towards the end of 8th century AD. This struggle for supremacy
among the Palas, Partihars and rashtrakutas was significant event in these centuries.
• Genrally, the period between 750 AD and 1200 AD is referred to as the Rajput
Period. This period has been characterised by a lack of unity in the kingdoms amid
foreign invasions.
The Palas of Bengal during Early Medieval Period in India:

• The Pala dynasty was founded by Gopala in 750 AD. He was

succeeded by his son Dharmapala who revived Nalanda University.
He also founded the Vikramsila University(present day Bhagalpur
district in Bihar).
• He was succeeded by Devapal during 815-855 AD. He built the
famous the Mahabodhi temple at Bodh Gaya. The Palas patronised
Buddhism even while it was on decline in other parts of India. They
were the followers of Mahayana and Vajrayana schools of Buddhism.
Proto-Bengali literature and art flourished during their rule. The
UNESCO world Heritage site, Somapura Mahavihara(now in
Bangladesh) was constructed during the Pala reign. They ruled over
parts of modern day Bengal and Bihar.
• The Palas were succeeded by Sena dynasty of Bengal. In the court of
Lakshman Sena the author of Gita Govind, Jayadeva was the court
poet.
• The Pratiharas of Kannauj During Early Medieval History of India:
• Also known as Gurjara Pratihara because they probably originated from Gujarat region.
Mihir Bhoja was the most important ruler of this dynasty. Kannauj became their capital
for a while. They are believed to be a clan of Rajputs. Nagabhatta was the first great ruler
of this dynasty. He ruled from about 725 Ad to 740 AD. He defeated the Arab Muslim
rulers of Sind and prevented them from capturing the central India. He was succeeded by
Devaraja, Vatsaraja and Nagabhata II. At its peak, the Gurjara-Pratihara empire included
parts of eastern Punjab, awadh, Agra, gwalior, and Rajasthan.
• Mihir Bhoja ruled from 840-890 AD, he took the empire to its peak glory by extending
the boundaries of empire further. He made Kannauj an important centre in India. Mihir
Bhoja maintained large army. He was a patron of art and learning. Himself a vaishnavite,
he was tolerant to other religions.
• Mahendrapala succeeded Bhoja and maintained the empire.
• The Rashtrakutas in Early Medieval Period in India:
• Dantiduga was the founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty with his capital at Malkhand or
Malkhed, in present day gulbarga district in Karataka. The Rashtrakutas built the famous
Kailasa Temple at ellora which is remarkable rock-cut architecture.
• For a period that has come to be so strongly associated with the Islamic influence and rule in India, Medieval Indian
history went for almost three whole centuries under the so-called indigenous rulers, that included the Chalukyas, the
Pallavas, the Pandyas, the Rashtrakutas, the Muslims rulers and finally the Mughal Empire. The most important
dynasty to emerge in the middle of the 9th century was that of the Cholas.
• The Palas
• Between 8th and 10th centuries A.D., a number of powerful empires dominated the eastern and northern parts of
India. The Pala king Dharmpala, son of Gopala reigned from the late 8 th century A.D. to early 9th century A.D. Nalanda
University and Vikramashila University were founded by Dharmpala.

The Senas
• After the decline of the Palas, the Sena dynasty established its rule in Bengal. The founder of the dynasty was
Samantasena. The greatest ruler of the dynasty was Vijaysena. He conquered the whole of Bengal and was
succeeded by his son Ballalasena. He reigned peacefully but kept his dominions intact. He was a great scholar and
wrote four works including one on astronomy. The last ruler of this dynasty was Lakshamanasena under whose reign
the Muslims invaded Bengal, and the empire fell.
The Pratihara
• The greatest ruler of the Pratihara dynasty was Mihir Bhoja. He recovered Kanauj (Kanyakubja) by 836, and it
remained the capital of the Pratiharas for almost a century. He built the city Bhojpal (Bhopal). Raja Bhoja and other
valiant Gujara kings faced and defeated many attacks of the Arabs from west.
• Between 915-918 A.D, Kanauj was attacked by a Rashtrakuta king, who devastated the city leading to the weakening
of the Pratihara Empire. In 1018, Kannauj then ruled by Rajyapala Pratihara was sacked by Mahmud of Ghazni. The
empire broke into independent Rajput states.
• The Rashtrakutas
• This dynasty, which ruled from Karnataka, is illustrious for several reasons. They ruled the territory vaster than that of any other dynasty. They were
great patrons of art and literature. The encouragement that several Rashtrakuta kings provided to education and literature is unique, and the
religious tolerance exercised by them was exemplary.

The Chola Empire of the South

• It emerged in the middle of the 9th century A.D., covered a large part of Indian peninsula, as well as parts of Sri Lanka and the Maldives Islands.
• The first important ruler to emerge from the dynasty was Rajaraja Chola I and his son and successor Rajendra Chola. Rajaraja carried forward the
annexation policy of his father. He led armed expedition to distant lands of Bengal, Odisha and Madhya Pradesh.
• The successors of Rajendra I, Rajadhiraj and Rajendra II were brave rulers who fought fiercely against the later Chalukya kings, but could not check
the decline of Chola Empire. The later Chola kings were weak and incompetent rulers. The Chola Empire thus lingered on for another century and a
half, and finally came to an end with the invasion of Malik Kafur in the early 14 th century A.D.
The Rise of Islam in South-Asia
• The initial entry of Islam into South Asia came in the first century after the death of the Prophet Muhammad. The Umayyad caliph in Damascus sent
an expedition to Baluchistan and Sindh in 711 led by Muhammad bin Qasim. He captured Sindh and Multan. Three hundred years after his death
Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, the ferocious leader, led a series of raids against Rajput kingdoms and rich Hindu temples, and established a base in
Punjab for future incursions. In 1024, the Sultan set out on his last famous expedition to the southern coast of Kathiawar along the Arabian Sea,
where he sacked the city of Somnath and its renowned Hindu temple.
Muslim Invasion In India
• Muhammad Ghori invaded India in 1175 A.D. After the conquest of Multan and Punjab, he advanced towards Delhi. The brave Rajput chiefs of
northern India headed by Prithvi Raj Chauhan defeated him in the First Battle of Terrain in 1191 A.D. After about a year, Muhammad Ghori came
again to avenge his defeat. A furious battle was fought again in Terrain in 1192 A.D. in which the Rajputs were defeated and Prithvi Raj Chauhan was
captured and put to death. The Second Battle of Terrain, however, proved to be a decisive battle that laid the foundations of Muslim rule in
northern India.
The Delhi Sultanate
• The period between 1206 A.D. and 1526 A.D. in India's history is known as the Delhi Sultanate period. During this period of over three hundred
years, five dynasties ruled in Delhi. These were: the Slave dynasty (1206-90), Khilji dynasty (1290-1320), Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1413), Sayyid
dynasty (1414-51), and Lodhi dynasty (1451-1526).
• The Slave Dynasty
• The concept of equality in Islam and Muslim traditions reached its climax in the history of South Asia when slaves were raised to the status of Sultan. The
Slave Dynasty ruled the Sub-continent for about 84 years. It was the first Muslim dynasty that ruled India. Qutub-ud-din Aibak, a slave of Muhammad
Ghori, who became the ruler after the death of his master, founded the Slave Dynasty. He was a great builder who built the majestic 238 feet high stone
tower known as Qutub Minar in Delhi.
• The next important king of the Slave dynasty was Shams-ud-din Iltutmush, who himself was a slave of Qutub-ud-din Aibak. Iltutmush ruled for around 26
years from 1211 to 1236 and was responsible for setting the Sultanate of Delhi on strong footings. Razia Begum, the capable daughter of Iltutmush, was
the first and the only Muslim lady who ever adorned the throne of Delhi. She fought valiantly, but was defeated and killed.
• Finally, the youngest son of Iltutmush, Nasir-ud-din Mahmud became Sultan in 1245. Though Mahmud ruled India for around 20 years, but throughout his
tenure the main power remained in the hands of Balban, his Prime Minister. On death of Mahmud, Balban directly took over the throne and ruled Delhi.
During his rule from 1266 to 1287, Balban consolidated the administrative set up of the empire and completed the work started by Iltutmush.
• The Khilji Dynasty
• Following the death of Balban, the Sultanate became weak and there were number of revolts. This was the period when the nobles placed Jalal-ud-din
Khilji on the throne. This marked the beginning of Khilji dynasty. The rule of this dynasty started in 1290 A.D. Ala-ud-din Khilji, a nephew of Jalal-ud-din
Khilji hatched a conspiracy and got Sultan Jalal-ud-din killed and proclaimed himself as the Sultan in 1296. Ala-ud-din Khilji was the first Muslim ruler
whose empire covered almost whole of India up to its extreme south. He fought many battles, conquered Gujarat, Ranthambhor, Chittor, Malwa, and
Deccan. During his reign of 20 years, Mongols invaded the country several times but were successfully repulsed. From these invasion Alla-ud-din Khilji
learnt the lessons of keeping himself prepared, by fortifying and organizing his armed forces. Alla-ud-din died in 1316 A.D., and with his death, the Khilji
dynasty came to an end.
• The Tughlaq Dynasty
• Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, who was the Governor of Punjab during the reign of Ala-ud-din Khilji, ascended the throne in 1320 A.D. and founded the Tughlaq
dynasty. He conquered Warrangal and put down a revolt in Bengal. Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq succeeded his father and extended the kingdom beyond
India, into Central Asia. Mongols invaded India during Tughlaq rule, and were defeated this time too.
• Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq first shifted his capital from Delhi to Devagiri in Deccan. However, it had to be shifted back within two years. He inherited a
massive empire but lost many of its provinces, more particularly Deccan and Bengal. He died in 1351 A.D. and his cousin, Feroz Tughlaq succeeded him.
• Feroz Tughlaq did not contribute much to expand the territories of the empire, which he inherited. He devoted much of his energy to the betterment of
the people. After his death in 1388, the Tughlaq dynasty came virtually to an end. Although the Tughlaqs continued to reign till 1412, the invasion of Delhi
by Timur in 1398 may be said to mark the end of the Tughlaq empire.
• Timur's Invasion
• It was during the reign of the last king of the Tughlaq dynasty that the mighty king Timur or Tamerlane invaded India in 1398 A.D. He crossed
Indus and captured Multan, and just walked over to Delhi without much resistance.
• Vijayanagar Empire
• When Muhammad Tughlaq was losing his power in Deccan, the two Hindu princes, Harihar and Bukka founded an independent kingdom in
the region between the river Krishna and Tungabhadra in 1336. They soon established their sway over the entire territory between the rivers
Krishna in the north and Cauveri in the south. The rising powers of the Vijayanagar empire brought it into clash with many powers and they
frequently fought wars with the Bahmani kingdom.
• Bhakti Movement
• An important landmark in the cultural history of medieval India was the silent revolution in society brought about by a galaxy of socio-
religious reformers, a revolution known as the Bhakti Movement. This movement was responsible for many rites and rituals associated with
the worship of God by Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs of Indian subcontinent. For example, Kirtan at a Hindu Temple, Qawaali at a Dargah (by
Muslims), and singing of Gurbani at a Gurdwara are all derived from the Bhakti movement of medieval India (800-1700). The leader of this
Hindu revivalist movement was Shankaracharya, a great thinker and a distinguished philosopher. And this movement was propounded by
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Namadeva, Tukaram, Jayadeva. The movement's major achievement was its abolition of idol worship.
• The Mughal Empire
• In India, the Mughal Empire was one of the greatest empires ever. The Mughal Empire ruled hundreds of millions of people. India became
united under one rule, and had very prosperous cultural and political years during the Mughal rule. There were many Muslim and Hindu
kingdoms split all throughout India until the founders of the Mughal Empire came. There were some men such as Babar, grandson to the
Great Asian conqueror Tamerlane and the conqueror Genghis Khan from the northern region of Ganges, river valley, who decided to take
over Khyber, and eventually, all of India.
• Rise of the Sikh Power
• Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak Dev at the beginning of the sixteenth century. Guru Nanak was born on April 15, 1469 in the Western
Punjab village of Talwandi. Even as a child, he was given to deep thinking with no interest in worldly life. At the age of thirty, he got
enlightenment. Thereafter, he travelled almost the whole of the country and went over to Mecca and Baghdad, preaching his message. On
his death he was followed by nine other Gurus in succession.
• The time from the 8th to the 12th century is known as the Medieval Period. This refers to the Postclassical Era in the Indian subcontinent. It is again
divided into two periods- Early Medieval period and later medieval period.
• The political life in India was chiefly dominated by the presence of a large number of states. The bigger states tried to establish their sovereignty
in Northern India and the Deccan. The chief contenders in this skirmish for sovereignty were the Rashtrakutas, the Pratiharas, and the Palas.
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Modern Era – Modern Period