Pressure:

It is defined as the force acting per unit area exerted by a fluid
on surface .it’s unit is N/m² or Pa.

Atmospheric Pressure:
It is the pressure on the surface of earth due atmosphere.

Gauge Pressure: It is the difference between absolute

pressure and atmospheric pressure.
P gauge=P abs-P atm

Absolute Pressure: It is the pressure measured with

reference to vacuum.
P abs = P gauge + P atm
Types of Pressure
Static Pressure:
It is the pressure where no motion is occurring of the
liquid.
Dynamic Pressure:
It is the pressure that exerts on its surrounding while
the fluid is in motion.
Pressure measurement Gauges

A) Low Pressure Gauges 1) Mcleod Gauge 2) Thermal

conductivity Gauges i) Thermocouple vacuum gauge
ii) Pirani Gauge 3) Ionization gauge
B) High Pressure Gauges
1) Diaphragm 2) Bellow 3) The Bourdon tube
C) Electrical pressure gauge
1) Resistance type 2) Photo electric type 3)
piezoelectric Type 4) variable capacitor type
Low Pressure Gauge
Low pressure are below atmospheric pressure is known
as negative atmospheric pressure or vacuum pressure.
Pressure less than 1 mm of Hg can be measured in torr
and micron units.
1 torr = 1 mm of Hg
1) McLeod Gauge
The McLeod Gauge measures the vacuum pressure in the
range between 10-1 and 10-5 torr. This can be used as a
primary standard device for calibrating other low-pressure
gauges.
Working Principal:
1) It is made up of rough glass tube and mercury is used to
trap the known volume of gas.
2) The plunger moves up lowers the mercury level to the
cut off position.
3) Same time gas enters in the tube of unknown pressure.
4) This gas fills the tube down to the cut off position of
mercury level.
5) The plunger moves downwards to rise the mercury
above cut off and traps the gas inside the bulb and
measuring capillary.
6) Further pushing the plunger compress the gas and
mercury reaches at the zero of reference capillary.
7) The pressure in measuring capillary and reference
capillary is different.
8) This difference in height represents the rise in
pressure.
Thermal conductivity Gauges
Thermal conductivity is the ability of material to carry
heat by conduction.
Thermal conductivity of material changes only when
pressure drops below 1 mm of Hg.
In this range as the pressure decreases the ability to
conduct heat also decreases.
There is a direct relationship between pressure and
conductivity of gauges.
This relationship is used to measure low pressure hence
it is called thermal conductivity gauges.
There are two types of thermal conductivity gauges
1) Pirani Gauge 2) Thermocouple vacuum gauge
Pirani Gauge
Principle of Pirani gauge:
A conducting wire gets heated when electric current
flows through it. The rate at which heat is dissipated from
this wire depends on the conductivity of the surrounding
media.
 [higher pressure – higher density – higher conductivity –
reduced filament temperature – less resistance of
filament] and vice versa.
Working of Pirani gauge:
A constant current is passed through the filament in the pirani
gauge chamber. Due to this current, the filament gets heated
and assumes a resistance which is measured using the bridge.
Now the pressure to be measured (applied pressure) is
connected to the pirani gauge chamber. Due to the applied
pressure the density of the surrounding of the pirani gauge
filament changes. Due to this change in density of the
surrounding of the filament its conductivity changes causing
the temperature of the filament to change.
When the temperature of the filament changes, the resistance
of the filament also changes.
Now the change in resistance of the filament is determined
using the bridge.
This change in resistance of the pirani gauge filament becomes
a measure of the applied pressure when calibrated.
Advantages of Pirani gauge
They are rugged and inexpensive
Give accurate results
Good response to pressure changes.
Relation between pressure and resistance is linear for
the range of use.
Readings can be taken from a distance.
Limitations of Pirani gauge
Pirani gauge must be checked frequently.
Pirani gauge must be calibrated from different gases.
Electric power is a must for its operation.
Thermocouple vacuum gauge
 It has same working as pirani gauge.
Thermocouple Gauge a filament is heated by passing constant
current through it.
When gas molecule interact with filament heat is carried away.
Therefore the temperature is directly depended on the pressure
in the chamber.
The higher the pressure the more molecule interact with the
filament and more heat is taken from it.
The temperature change in the system is monitored with the
help of a thermocouple where the generated voltage is depend
on the temperature of the filament.
 When the filament loses heat by interacting with gas molecules,
the change of voltage in thermocouple is detected with the help
of a volt meter.
Therefore the measured voltage can be easily converted into
pressure units.
Ionization Gauge
Working of Ionization gauge
 Extremely low pressures can be measured with this gauge.
The gauge consist of a triode vacuum tube i.e.
cathode ,grid and anode plate.
Cathode is heated filament. Grid is positive charged. and
anode is at negative potential.
Cathode is positive ions collector and anode is negative
ions collector.
This assembly is kept in system whose pressure is to be
measured.
The heated cathode emites the electrons which move past
the grid.
The positive grid accelerates these electrons which collide
with gas molecules forms ions.
The anode is negative so it collects the positive ions and
produces current and the electrons and negative ions are
collected by grid, produces grid current in grid circuit.
Advantages:
1) Very low pressure measurement.
2) It can gives continuous pressure reading.
3) best use within range 10⁻⁴ to 10⁻⁹ torr.
Disadvantages:
1) Oxygen and carbon dioxide get decomposed by the hot
element.
2) chances of burning the filament if exposed to air.
High Pressure Gauges
Pressure Measurements in the industry used various
pressure measurement gauges ranges from 0 to 700 Mpa.
There are two types of high pressure gauges are used
1) Mechanical Type
a) Diaphragm b) bellows c) Bourdon Tube
2) Electrical Type
a) Resistance Type b) Photoelectric c) Piezoelectric type
1) Mechanical Type
These type of gauges use elastic members for sensing
pressure at primary stage so it is called as primary
sensing element.
These elastic members convert the pressure into
mechanical displacement which can directly read on
pointer scale or converted into electrical signal.
a) Diaphragm
The Diaphragm Pressure Gauge uses the elastic
deformation of a diaphragm to measure the difference
between an unknown pressure and a reference pressure.
The diaphragm pressure gauge consists of a circular
membrane, made from sheet metal of precise
dimensions, which can either be flat or corrugated.
The diaphragm is mechanically connected to the
transmission mechanism which will amplify the small
deflections of the diaphragm and transfer them to the
pointer.
The membrane type diaphragm is used for range 0 to 6.7
kpa and disc type is used for 0 to 350 kpa.
Phosphor bronze , beryllium copper , brass and Teflon
are used as material of diaphragm.
Types of Diaphragm:
1) Flat type diaphragm.
2) Corrugated or disc type diaphragm.
If the diaphragm is made using pair of discs welded
together it is known as capsule.
  Advantages:
1. Excellent load performance and Linearity
3. Suitable for measuring absolute pressure, differential
pressure.
4. Small size, affordable
5. They have moderate cost and simple in construction
Disadvantages:
1. it can not avoid vibrations and shocks.
2. Difficulty in maintenance
3. Lower measurement pressure.
b) Bellows
Construction and Working
The bellows are made up of an alloy with high strength
and ductility.
brass or phosphor bronze is used for making bellows.
The bellows is a one-piece, collapsible, seamless metallic
unit that has deep folds formed from very thin-walled
tubing.
Pressure is applied to the internal volume of the bellows.
As the inlet pressure to the instrument varies, the bellows
will  expand or contract.
The moving end of the bellows is connected to a
mechanical linkage assembly.
The displacement of mechanical linkage is directly
proportional to pressure inside the bellows. And it shows
on the pointer.
Advantages
(i) Its cost is moderate.
(ii) It is able to deliver high force.
(iii) It is adaptable for absolute and differential pressures.
(iv) It is good to low-to moderate range.
Disadvantages
1) Friction and dirt may affect sensitivity.
2) For more accurate result spring arrangement is
necessary.
c) Bourdon Tube
The pressure to be measured is connected to the fixed open
end of the bourdon tube.
The applied pressure acts on the inner walls of the bourdon
tube.
Due to the applied pressure, the bourdon tube tends to
change in cross – section from elliptical to circular.
This tends to straighten the bourdon tube causing a
displacement of the free end of the bourdon tube.
This displacement of the free closed end of the bourdon tube
is proportional to the applied pressure.
As the free end of the bourdon tube is connected to a link –
section – pinion arrangement, the displacement is amplified
and converted to a rotary motion of the pinion.
ADVANTAGES:-
These Bourdon tube pressure gauges give accurate
results.
Bourdon tube are simple in construction.
These Bourdon tube pressure gauges give accurate
results.
Accuracy is high especially at high pressures.
Disadvantages
They respond slowly to changes in pressure.
They are sensitive to shocks and vibrations.
It cannot be used for precision measurement.
2) Electrical Type
In this type of gauges, mechanical motion is converted
into change in resistance and change in resistance is
converted into voltage and current.
The output of electrical gauge is a function of
displacement which in turn a function of pressure
conversion takes place two times primary and secondary.
a) Resistance Type
As pressure changes, the bellows will either expand or
contract.
This expansion and contraction causes the attached
slider to move along the potentiometer.
Potentiometer may be made curved so that the wiper
can pivot in a circular motion.
As the pressure decrease bellows contract moving the
wiper upward causing decrease in resistance.
 The pressure can be read directly from voltmeter.
Strain gauge pressure measurement
Construction and Working
Strain gauge is a resistance type gauge whose electrical
resistance changes when it is stretched or compressed.
Two gauges measure strain in circumference direction
while other two measure strain in radial direction.
The four strain gauges are attached to Wheatstone
bridge circuit forms on the diaphragm which deflects
when pressure is applied.
The resulting deformation change the resistance of
strain gauge which converts into voltage of bridge
circuit.
The output of bridge circuit measure the applied
pressure.
Advantages:-
1) It is easy to install.
2) It has good accuracy over wide range.
3) Used for static as well as dynamic pressure
measurement.
4) They have good shock and vibration characteristics.
Disadvantages
1) It is expensive.
2) It requires signal conditioning.
3) It Require constant electricity supply.
Photoelectric Pressure Transducer
Construction and Working
It consist of port for input pressure, diaphragm, light
valve, a small window , photo tube with output circuit.
Diaphragm controls the position of small window.
The amount of output depends on amount of light
incident on phototube.
When the pressure applied from port it changes the
position of window.
As the light source and phototube separated by window
it changes amount of light cause change in output
current.
 The change in output current is linear with
displacement of diaphragm i.e. applied pressure.
Advantages:-
It can measure both static and dynamic pressure.
It is highly efficient.
Easy portability.
Disadvantages
Less stable for long term measurement.
Considerable displacement of diaphragm required.
Piezoelectric pressure gauge
Construction and Working
When any force or pressure, apply on the piezoelectric
material It converts this energy into voltage. This voltage
is a function of the force or pressure applied to it.
This gauge consist of piezoelectric crystal placed
between a solid base and pressure sensing element like
diaphragm.
Under the action of pressure the diaphragm deflects
producing deformation in crystal there by produces an
emf which is function of applied pressure.
Advantages:-
Used to measure very high pressure which rapidly
changes e.g. IC engine.
The frequency response is very good.
Range is 0 to 20 Mpa.
Disadvantages
It can not measure static pressure.
It is sensitive to temperature changes.
Temperature Measurement
Classification of Temperature Measuring Instruments
A) Glass thermometers with mercury
B) Pressure gauge Thermometer
1) Liquid filled 2) Vapour filled 3) Gas filled
C) Bimetallic Thermometer
D) Electrical Resistance Thermometer
1) Platinum Resistance thermometer(RTD)2) Thermistor
3) Thermocouples
E)Pyrometers
1) Radiation Pyrometer
2) optical Pyrometer
A) Glass Thermometers with Mercury
The liquid in glass thermometer, is the most commonly
used device to measure temperature and it is inexpensive
to make and easy to use.
The liquid in glass thermometer has a glass bulb attached
to a sealed glass tube (also called the stem or capillary
tube).
The bulb is typically filled with either mercury or red-
coloured alcohol and is free to expand and rise up into
the tube when the temperature increases, and to contract
and move down the tube when the temperature
decreases.
A temperature scale which is basically preset or
imprinted on the stem for displaying temperature
readings.
Bimetallic Thermometer
 Construction and Working
The bimetallic thermometer consists of a bimetallic strip.
 A bimetallic strip is made of two thin strips of metals
which have different coefficients of expansion.
 The two metal strips are joined together by brazing,
welding or riveting so that the relative motion between
them is arrested.
A bimetallic strip is fixed at one end and another end is
free which is connected to pointer which move on scale.
A bimetallic strip is wound in the form of helix or spiral
form.
It is used in the range of -40 degree to 320 degree.
Electrical Resistance Thermometer
1) Platinum Resistance thermometer(RTD)
A resistance temperature detector (abbreviated RTD) is
basically either a long, small diameter metal wire wound in
a coil much like a strain gage. Platinum is the most
common metal used for RTDs.
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) operates on the
principle that the electrical resistance of a metal changes
linear and repeatable manner with changes in temperature.
RTD have a positive temperature coefficient (resistance
increases with temperature).  
The resistance of an RTD increases with increasing
temperature, just as the resistance of a strain gage increases
with increasing strain.
 A basic bridge circuit which consists of three known
resistances, R1, R2, and R3 (variable), an unknown
variable resistor RX (RTD), a source of voltage, and a
sensitive ammeter.
 Thermistors
It is a “THERmally controlled resISTOR”, thermistor is a
temperature controlled resistor. 
A thermistor is mostly made from sensitive
semiconductor based metal oxides with metallised or
sintered connecting leads onto a ceramic disc or bead.
It is made from oxides such as chromium, nickel, cobalt,
copper, iron etc.
There are two types of temperature coefficient namely
negative temperature coefficient and positive
temperature coefficient. 
Negative temperature coefficient thermistor is a device
whose resistance decreases with increase in temperature.
Positive temperature coefficient Thermistors are those
resistors whose resistance increases with increase in
ambient temperature.
Thermocouple
1) Seebeck effect: The Seebeck effect states that when
two different or unlike metals are joined together at two
junctions, an electromotive force (emf) is generated at
the two junctions. The amount of emf generated is
different for different combinations of the metals.
2) Peltier effect: As per the Peltier effect, when two
dissimilar metals are joined together to form two
junctions, emf is generated within the circuit due to the
different temperatures of the two junctions of the circuit.

Laws of Thermocouples
1) Law of intermediate metals:
 The law of intermediate metals states that a third
metal may be inserted into a thermocouple system
without affecting the emf generated, if, and only if,
the junctions with the third metal are kept at the
same temperature. 
 Law of intermediate temperatures
The law of intermediate temperatures states that the
sum of the emf developed by a thermocouple with its
junctions at temperatures T1 and T2, and with its
junctions at temperatures T2 and T3, will be the same as
the emf developed if the thermocouple junctions are at
temperatures T1 and T3.
Pyrometer
A pyrometer is a device that is used for the temperature
measurement of an object.
The object whose temperature is above absolute zero
(i.e.273.15 K) emits or generates radiation.
The emission is heat radiation which depends on
temperature.
The energy radiated by the object is used to measure the
temperature of the object through the use of detective
device which converts the received signal in to electrical
signal.
Types of Pyrometer
1) Radiation Pyrometer 2) Optical Pyrometer
Radiation Pyrometers
Construction and Working
The radiation pyrometer has an optical system, including
a lens, a mirror and an adjustable eye piece.
The heat energy emitted from the hot body is passed on
to the optical lens, which collects it and is focused on to
the detector with the help of the mirror and eye piece
arrangement.
The detector may either be a thermister or
thermocouple.
The heat energy is converted to its corresponding
electrical signal by the detector and is sent to the output
temperature display device.
Optical Pyrometer
 Construction and Working
In an optical pyrometer, a brightness comparison is made to measure
the temperature.
 As a measure of the reference temperature, a color change with the
growth in temperature is taken.
 The device compares the brightness produced by the radiation of the
object whose temperature is to be measured, with that of a reference
temperature.
The reference temperature is produced by a lamp whose brightness
can be adjusted till its intensity becomes equal to the brightness of
the source object.
 For an object, its light intensity always depends on the temperature
of the object, whatever may be its wavelength.
After adjusting the temperature, the current passing through it is
measured using a millimeters, as its value will be proportional to the
temperature of the source when calibrated.
Advantages
Simple assembling of the device enables easy use of it.
Can measure the moving objects.
Provides a very high accuracy .
The device can be used for long distance object also.
Disadvantages
It is very costly.
Human error occur while adjusting the image.
It measure temperature of only hot surfaces.
Thank
You!!!!!!!