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There are also concerns regarding the occurrence of co-infections occurring in COVID-19
patients. Herpes zoster (HZ) is currently being reported as a co-infection in COVID-19
patients. It is a varicella-zoster virus induced viral infection affecting older and
immunocompromised individuals. Reactivation of HZ infection in COVID-19 patients are
emerging and the mechanism of reactivation is still unknown.
Therapeutic antibodies – from “magic
bullets” to cleverly engineered molecules
During an infection, B cells are “learning” to
recognize pathogens.
Non-neutralizing antibodies also
recognize and attach to dangerous
invaders, but cannot prevent invaders
spreading. In a way, non-neutralizing
antibodies are like GPS trackers. The
proteins signal T cells and other parts of
immune system that there’s a problem, but
not deal with it directly. Non-neutralizing
antibodies are helpful, but not as efficient
in fighting infections as neutralizing
antibodies.
Non-neutralizing antibody may contribute to viral clearance or control following mucosal
transmission of HIV
Neutralizing antibodies
Non-neutralizing antibodies
Lymph node
A lag between initial mucosal infection and systemic viremia occurs, during which time initial foci of infected cells and infectious virions expand to levels sufficient to infect
neighboring lymph nodes and achieve systemic infection [1]. Neutralizing antibody may prevent initial infection all together. Non-neutralizing antibodies, however, may
clear or limit virions and infected cells in the initial foci, resulting in a low systemic viral burden or complete clearance of infection.
Mechanisms by which antibodies mediate effector functions.
Lysed target
cell
Phagosome
Virolysis
Phagosome Degraded virion
(A) Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity involves granulated effector cells (NK cells, macrophages, neutrophils and gdT cells) expressing Fcg receptors,
which bind the Fc portion of antibodies specifically targeting antigens on infected cells, resulting in lysis of the infected cell. (B) Antibody-dependent cell-
mediated virus inhibition includes the ADCC mechanism, but in addition functions by Fc g- receptor-mediated phagocytosis and by secretion of b-
chemokines, which inhibit HIV replication. (C) Antibody-dependent complement- mediated lysis involves activation of the classical complement pathway
following binding of complement to antigen–antibody complexes. By this mechanism, virolysis can occur. (D) Fcg receptor mediated phagocytosis occurs
when the receptors on phagocytic cells bind to immune complexes, resulting in endocytosis of the complex and degradation within phagosomes.
The assay allows for the direct measurement of virus
spike displacement from the ACE-2 receptor in the
presence of neutralizing antibodies.
Broadly Neutralizing Antibodies
(bNAbs) to HIV and Their Role in
Vaccine Design
Infection and Vaccine-Induced Neutralizing-Antibody
Responses to the SARS-CoV-2 B.1.617 Variants
August 12, 2021 N Engl J Med 2021; 385:664-666
Despite reduced antibody titers against the B.1.351 variant, sera from
infected and vaccinated individuals containing polyclonal antibodies to
the spike protein could still neutralize SARS-CoV-2 B.1.351,
suggesting that protective humoral immunity may be retained against
this variant.
Antibody fragments as nanoparticle
targeting ligands: a step in the right
direction