EE-371

LINEAR CONTROL SYSTEMS

“CONTROL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING”

Text Book: Chapter 4 (nn 7th Ed): Time Response

Instructor: Dr. Farid Gul

Class: Summer 2022
Electrical Engineering Department
1
 4.1 Introduction, Page 158
4.2 Poles, Zeros, and System Response, Page 158
4.3 First-Order Systems, Page 162
4.4 Second-Order Systems: Introduction, Page 164
4.5 The General Second-Order System, Page 169
4.6 Underdamped Second-Order Systems, Page 173
4.7 System Response with Additional Poles, Page 182
4.8 System Response with Zeros, Page186

4.10 Laplace Transform Solution of State

Equations, Page 194
4.11 Time Domain Solution of
State Equations, Page 198
2
Response of a position control system showing
effect of high and low controller gain on the
output response

3
Transfer functions represent linear, time-invariant systems

After obtaining a mathematical representation of a

subsystem,
the subsystem is analyzed for

transient and steady-state responses

to find out
if these characteristics yield the desired behavior.

This chapter is devoted to the analysis of system transient

response 4
 Analysis of models to find

the step response of

first- order and second-order systems.

(order refers to the order of the differential equation

representing the system)

5
Standard test inputs used in Control Systems

6
Laplace transform
table for the standard
test inputs

7
Poles of a Transfer Function

The poles of a transfer function are the values of the Laplace

transform variable, s, that cause the transfer function to
become infinite.

Zeros of a Transfer Function

The zeros of a transfer function are the values of the

Laplace transform variable, s, that cause the transfer
function to become zero.

8
Poles and Zeros of a First-Order System:
C (s) s  2
G(s)  
R(s) s  5
1
R(s) 
s
1  s  2 A B
C (s)   
s  s  5 s s  5 1
Step Response

A
 s  2  2 ; B
s  2 
3 0.9

 s  5  s0 5 s s 5
5
0.8

2 3 Amplitude
5 5
C (s)   0.7

s s5 0.6

2 3 5t 0.5

c(t )   e
5 5 0.4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Time (seconds)

9
 C (s) s  2
G(s)  
R(s) s  5
1
R( s) 
s
1 s  2
C (s) 
s  s  5
A B
 
s s5

A
 s  2  2
 s  5  s 0 5
B
 s  2 
3
s s 5
5
10
 VC ( s) 1 1
  RC
V ( s) RCs  1 s  1 RC
L

V ( s)  LsI ( s )  RI ( s ) VR ( s ) 1 R
L
R  
L  V (s) R s 1
L
s  RL
V ( s)   s  1 VR ( s)
R 

x(t) X (s) 1 1
B
 
f(t) F ( s) B s  K s  K B
B
b0
G ( s) 
s  a0 11
 Step Response

b0 2

G ( s) 
s  a0
1.8

1.6
b0
a0
 1.4
1
a0 s 1 1.2
Amplitude
k 1

 s 1 0.8
G1=?
0.6
figure(1)
k=2; 0.4 G2=?
tc=[0.1 0.5 1];
for n=1:3
0.2
G3=?
num=[0 k]; 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
den=[tc(n) 1]; Time (seconds)
  0.1
sys=tf(num,den);  1
step(sys);   0.5
hold on
end
grid 12
 b0 Step Response
G ( s)  2

s  a0 1.8

b0
a0 1.6 G1=?  
 1
a0 s 1 1.4 G2=?
1.2
k G3=?
 Amplitude
1
 s 1
0.8
figure(2)  
tc=1; 0.6

k=[.5 1 2]; 0.4

for n=1:3
num=[0 k(n)];
0.2
 
den=[tc 1]; 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
sys=tf(num,den); Time (seconds)
step(sys);
hold on  
end
grid 13
Time response of first-order systems without zero
• First-order systems - Example

Pole =1/=-a0
X
S = -a0

1
Vc ( s ) Cs 1
 
V (s) R  1 RCs  1
Cs
 = RC (sec); K=1 14
If the input is a unit step,
R(s) = 1/s
Laplace transform of the step response is C(s)
a A B
C ( s )  R ( s )G ( s )   
s s  a s s  a
a
1  1 A
 s  a  s 0
1
C ( s)  
s sa B
a
s
 1
s  a

Step response in time domain is:

c(t )  c f (t )  cn (t )  1  e  at
15
 Impulse Response
1

 at
c(t )  c f (t )  cn (t )  1  e 0.9

0.8
a=5;
num =[0 1];
0.7
den=[1 a];
‘a’ is the only parameter needed G=tf(num,den);
0.6

Amplitude
0.5
impulse(G)
to describe the transient response 0.4
grid
0.3

of first order system with unity 0.2

gain. 0.1

When t → 1/a
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Time (seconds)

Step Response
 at 1
e  e  0.37
1

0.9
t 1/ a 0.8

0.7

Amplitude
0.6
a=5;
0.5
num =[0 a];
 at den=[1 a];
c(t ) t 1/ a  1  e
0.4

0.3
G=tf(num,den);
0.2
step(G)
 1  0.37  0.63 0.1
grid
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Time (seconds)

16
Transient Response Specifications

Time Constant, Tc

Rise Time, Tr

Settling Time, Ts

17
 t e-t/
0 1
 0.3679
2 0.1353
3 0.0498
4 0.0183
5 0.0067

c(t )  1  e  at
dc(t )  at
 ae  a
dt t 0 18
 C(s) b 1
a
Time Constant, Tc G (s)  
R (s) s  a 
The time constant can be
described as the time for
e-at to decay to 37% of its
initial value
OR
The time it takes for the
step response to rise to
63% of its final value
Rise Time, Tr
The time for the response to
go from 0.1 to 0.9 of its
final value
Settling Time, Ts
The time for the response to reach, and stay within, 2%
of its final value 19
 Transient Response Specifications
• Time constant, 
– The time for e-at to decay 37% of its initial value. 1

• Rise time, tr a
– The time for the response to go from 0.1 to 0.9 of its final value.

 at
c(t )  .1 Calculate for 2.2
c(t )  1  e tr 
c(t )  .9 difference in time
a

• Settling time, ts
– The time for the response to reach, 4
Let c(t) = .98 and ts 
and stay within 2% of its final value. solve for time t a

20
First-Order Transfer Functions via Testing
b0
G(s) 
s  a0

Final value  0.72

63% of 0.72  .45

  0.14
a0  1  7.14

b0 / a0  0.72
b0  7.14  0.72  5.14

21
Second-Order Systems

22
Example: RLC Circuit with DC input

 1 
V ( s )   Ls  R   I (s)
 Cs 
Vs I ( s) 1 s
  2 RL
V ( s ) Ls  R  1 s  L s 1
LC
Cs

I (s) s
 2 RL
V (s) s  L s  1
LC R  R  1
2

s1      
2L  2 L  LC
Characteristic polynomial
2
2 R  R  1
s  s R
L
1
LC 0 s2  
2L
   
 2 L  LC
Characteristic equations 23
Mechanical Example of IInd order
B K
X (s) 1

F ( s ) MS 2  BS  K Mass (M)

1
X ( s) M
 x(t)
F ( s) S 2  B S  K f(t)

M M

B K
S2  S  0 characteristic equation
M M

2
B  B  K
s1,2     
2M  2M  M

24
 Four possible solutions of 2nd order
characteristic equations

1: Roots are Real and Distinct

2: Roots are Real and repeated
3: Roots are Complex
4: Roots are Imaginary

25
Case 1: Roots are Real and Distinct

c (t )  1  0 .171e 7.854t  1 .171e 1.146t

s1,2  1.146,  7.854

Over damped response:

Poles: two real poles  S1 and S2.
Natural response: two exponentials
25
Case 2: Roots are Real and repeated

c(t )  1  3 t e 3t  e 3t

s1,2  3,  3

Critically damped response:

Poles: two real poles at -3
Natural response: an exponential and product of time, t, and an
exponential
26
Case 3: Roots are Complex
t
 8 
c(t )  1  e  cos 8 t  sin 8 t 
 8 
c(t )  1  1.06 e  t cos  8 t  19.47 o 

s1,2  1  j 8

s1,2  n  jn 1   2

Under damped response:
Poles: two complex poles at s1 and s2  
Natural response: damped sinusoid
27
Case 4: Roots are Imaginary

c (t )  1  cos 3t

s1,2   j 3

s1,2  n  jn 1   2

Undamped response:
Poles: two imaginary poles at  s1, s2
Natural response: sustained oscillations at 3 rad/sec
28
• The step responses for the four cases of damping
• The critically damped response is the division between the overdamped
and underdamped cases and is the fastest response without overshoot

30
 4.5 The General Second-Order System
Natural Frequency, ωn
The natural frequency of a second-order system is the
frequency of oscillation of the system without damping.

Damping Ratio, ζ
Ratio of exponential decay frequency to the natural
frequency (Sinusoidal oscillation).

31
 The General Second-Order System
Standard form of the 2nd-order TF is given by: 2
a a
C ( s) Kb s1,2       b
G ( s)   2 2 2
R ( s ) s  as  b
n 
2
s1,2  n   n2
C (s) K n2
G ( s)   2 s1,2  n  jn 1   2
R ( s ) s  2n s  n2

The two quantities ζ and ωn can be used to describe the

characteristics of the second-order transient response just as time
constants describe the first-order system response.
wn, the natural frequency , is the frequency of oscillation of the
2nd order system without damping
z, the damping ratio, determines how fast the oscillations
decay to steady state value 32
TIME RESPONSE OF SECOND-
ORDER SYSTEM
z & n

>1 <1
s1  s 2 s    j n

=1
=0
s1  s 2  s

33
 Second-Order System
• General form:
K n2
G s  2
s  2n s  n2
Where,
K : Gain
ζ : Damping ratio
n : Undamped natural frequency

• Roots of denominator:
s 2  2n s  n2  0

s1,2  n  n  2  1

34
 Second-Order System
 Problem: For each of the transfer function, find the values of ζ
and n, as well as characterize the nature of the response as over-
damped, critically damped, under-damped, or un-damped.

400
a) G s   2
s  12 s  400
900 K n2
G s   2 G s  2
b) s  90 s  900 s  2n s  n2
225
G s  
s 2  30 s  225 b0
c) G s 
625 a2 s 2  a1s  a0
G s   2
s  625
d)
35
4.6 Step Response Analysis
of
Underdamped Second-Order
Systems
a common model for physical
problems

36
 objectives
• Define transient response specifications associated with
under-damped responses
• Relate these specifications to the pole location,
(i.e draw an association between pole location and the
form of second-order response)
• Tie the pole location to system parameters

Desired response generates required system components.

37
 Second-order underdamped Response
Specifications
• Rise time, Tr
The time required for the waveform to go from 0.1 of the final
value to 0.9 of the final value.
• Peak time, Tp
The time required to reach the first, or maximum, peak.
• Percent overshoot, %OS
The amount that the waveform overshoots the final value,
expressed as a percentage of the final value
• Settling time, Ts
The time required for the transient's oscillations to reach and stay
within ±2% of the steady-state value.
38
 C ( s) n2
 2
R ( s ) s  2n s  n2
1 n2  K1 K 2 s  K3
For step input C ( s )   2    2
s  s  2n s  n2  s s  2n s  n2

 2
1 ( s  n )  1 2 n 1  
C (s)  
s ( s  n ) 2  n2 1   2  
Taking inverse Laplace Transform we get:

n t
 2  2

c(t )  1  e  cos n 1   t  sin n 1   t 
 1  2 
 
c (t )  1 
1
1  2 
e nt cos n 1   2 t   
  tan 1   1  2  39
 Transient Response Specifications
c(t )  1 
1
1 2 
e nt cos n 1   2 t   
c(t) plotted as function of time
for given values of ζ and ωn

overshoot

• Rise time, Tr.

• Peak time, Tp.
• Percent overshoot, %OS.
• Settling time, Ts.

40
 Second-order underdamped responses
for damping ratio values from .1 to .8

c (t )  1 
1
1 2

e nt cos n 1   2 t   

• The lower the value of ζ, the more oscillatory the response.

• The natural frequency is a time-axis scale factor and does not affect the
nature of the response other than to scale it in time
41
 Evaluation of Tp
C ( s) n2 1 n2 
 2 For step input C ( s )   2 
R ( s ) s  2n s  n2 s  s  2n s  n2 
n2
L c (t )  sC ( s )  2
s  2n s  n2
n
c (t )  e nt sin n 1   2 t
1 2

Setting the derivative equal to zero

n 1   2 t  n
n Slope of c(t) at t = 0 is zero
t
At n = 1, t = Tp
n 1   2

 
Tp  
n 1   2 d
42
 22
Evaluation of %OS %OS 
cmax  c final
 100
c final

n t
 2  2

c(t )  1  e  cos n 1   t  sin n 1   t 
 1  2 
 

Tp 
n 1   2

cmax  c (Tp )  1  e

  1 2   cos    
sin  
 1  2 
 

cmax  1  e

  1 2  For unit step input cfinal = 1

%OS  e

  / 1 2  100
 ln  %OS / 100 
 
 2  ln 2  %OS / 100 
43
Percent overshoot vs damping ratio

%OS  e

  / 1 2  100

45
 Evaluation of Ts
c(t )  1 
1
1 2 
e nt cos n 1   2 t   
Ts : the time for which c(t) reaches and stays
within ±2% of the steady-state value.
Or
Ts is the time it takes for the amplitude of the
decaying sinusoid to reach 0.02
1
e nt  0.02
1  2

Ts 

 ln 0.02 1   2 
n

4
Ts  the numerator of Ts varies from 3.91 to 4.74 as ζ varies
n
from 0 to 0.9 and is thus approximated as 4 46
Unit step response of a second order system
n t
 2  2

c (t )  1  e  cos n 1   t  sin  n 1   t 
 1  2 
 
n t1
 2  2

c (t1 )  1  e  cos n 1   t1  sin n 1   t1   0.1    (1)
 1 2 
 
n t 2
 2  2

c (t2 )  1  e  cos n 1   t 2  sin n 1   t 2   0.9    (2)
 1  2 
 
Tr  t2  t1  Rise Time
nTr  n t2  nt1  Normalized Rise Time
Equation (1) and (2) are solved for ωnt1, and
ωnt2 for ζ = 0.1:0.1:0.9.
nTr  nt2  nt1

47
Evaluation of Tr
Precise analytical relationship between rise time and damping ratio, ζ,
cannot be found.  t
 2  2

c(t )  1  e n
 cos n 1   t  sin n 1   t 
 1  2 
 

n t

if n  10

and   0.5

from the grapgh

nt  1.63
t  Tr  0.163 sec

48
Pole plot for the underdamped second-order system

n2
G ( s)  2
s  2n s  n2

s1,2  n  jn 1   2

n   d
n 1   2  d

n
 d : the damping exponential frequency  cos 
n
d : the damped frequency of oscillation
  cos 
49
Time Response and Pole Locations
cont..

TS

4 4
TS  
Which parameter (τ ,TS,, %OS) remains constant? n  d
50
Time Response and Pole Locations
cont..


Tp 
d
Which parameter (τ ,TP,, %OS) remains constant? 51
Time Response and Pole Locations
cont..

%OS  e

  / 1 2  100 How the peak time
TP and settling time
TS are affected

??

52
  
TP  
n 1   2 d

4 4
TS  
n  d

53
54
 From the problem
statement As

For 20% overshoot

2
K
G s   n

s 2  2n s  n2

Thus

55
Second Order System
with Additional Pole

56
Second Order System with Additional Pole

n2
G ( s)  2
s  2 n s  n2 Unity gain 2nd order system

 rn2
G ( s)  Unity gain 2nd order system
( s   r )( s 2  2n s  n2 ) with additional pole at -αr

1  rn2
C (s)  Step response of 2nd order
s ( s   r )( s 2  2n s  n2 )
system with additional pole

A B  s  n   Cd D
C ( s)   
 
2
s s   n   2
d
(s   r )

where d  n 1   2
57
 A B  s  n   Cd D
C (s)   
 s  n   d ( s   r )
2
s 2

In time domain

c(t )  Au (t )  e nt  B cos d t  C sin d t   De  r t

58
c(t )  Au (t )  e nt  B cos d t  C sin d t   De  r t

59
Example 4.8
(Comparing Responses of Three-Pole System)

60
Complex poles dominant:
approximate as secon-dorder
system

Real pole dominant:

approximate as first-order system

61
All three poles dominant:
approximation difficult

62
The “five times” rule of thumb can be used as a
condition for second order approximation during
design.

The completed design should be simulated

before final implementation

63
Second Order System
with Additional Zero

64
Second Order System with Additional Zero

n2
Unity gain 2nd order system G ( s)  2
s  2 n s  n2

Unity gain 2nd order system with zero at -a

2
 n
(s  a)
G ( s)  2 a 2
( s  2n s  n )

65
 n2
G ( s)  2
s  2 n s  n2
Adding a zero at -a
2
Scaled version
( s  a ) of the response
G ( s)  2 n

( s  2n s  n2 )
sn2 an2
G ( s)  2  2
( s  2n s  n ) ( s  2n s  n2 )
2

Derivative of
the response

s1, 2  1  j 2.828

66
Step response with nonminimum-phase zero

Zero is in the right

half of the s-plane
sn2 an2
G ( s)  2  2
( s  2n s  n ) ( s  2n s  n2 )
2

The response begins to turn toward the

negative direction even though the final value
is positive
A system that exhibits this phenomenon is
known as a nonminimum-phase system

67
Lhp zero will amplify overshoot

Stable system, rhp zero can give

response that starts in opposite
direction from the steady-state
resp

68
Complex conjugate poles
Dominant:
zero tends to minimize effect
of nearby real pole

69
Real pole dominant,
zeros tend to minimize
effects of nearby poles

Unstable due to rhp pole,

nearby zero is not useful
in canceling pole

70
Example 4.9 Transfer Function of a Nonminimum-Phase System

Laplace transform of the response is: Expanding C(s) into partial fractions

C ( s)  
 s  10 
s  s  10 
1 1
C ( s)    10
s  10 s  s  10 
C ( s )  sCo ( s )  10Co ( s )
Expanding Co(s) into partial fractions
1
Co ( s )  
s  s  10 
Co(s) is Laplace transform of the response
without zero 71
 1 C (s)  
 s  10 
Co ( s )  
s  s  10  s  s  10 
1  1 
1 1 10t C ( s)    10   

 s  s  10  
co (t )    e s  10
10 10
 1 1 
c(t )  e 10t  10    e 10t   1  2e 10t
 10 10 

72
C (s)  
s  z  1

s  s  10  0.8

0.6
1  1 
C ( s)    z
s  10  s  s  10   0.4
 
0.2

c(t), co(t)
 1 1  0
c(t )  e10t  z    e 10t 
 10 10  -0.2

-0.4

-0.6
clc;
z=10; p=[-10]; k=-1; -0.8

[num,den]=zp2tf(z,p,k); -1
t=0:0.01:.5; 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
time t [sec]
[c,x]=step(num,den,t);
zo=[]; po=[-10]; ko=-1;
[numo,deno]=zp2tf(zo,po,ko);
[co,xo]=step(numo,deno,t);
co=-z*co;
plot(t,c, 'b',t,co,'r');
xlabel('time t [sec]');
ylabel('(1):c(t), (2):co(t)');
73
C (s)  
s  z  0.5
s  s  10 

1  1 
C ( s)    z
s  10  s  s  10  
  0

c(t), co(t)
 1 1 
c(t )  e10t  z    e 10t 
 10 10 
-0.5

clc;
z=5; p=[-10]; k=-1;
[num,den]=zp2tf(z,p,k); -1
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
t=0:0.01:.5; time t [sec]
[c,x]=step(num,den,t);
zo=[]; po=[-10]; ko=-1;
[numo,deno]=zp2tf(zo,po,ko);
[co,xo]=step(numo,deno,t);
co=-z*co;
plot(t,c, 'b',t,co,'r');
xlabel('time t [sec]');
ylabel('(1):c(t), (2):co(t)');
74
C (s)  
s  z  5

s  s  10 
4

1  1 
C ( s)    z
s  10  s  s  10  
  3

c(t), co(t)
 1 1  2
c(t )  e10t  z    e 10t 
 10 10 
1

clc; 0

z=50; p=[-10]; k=-1;

[num,den]=zp2tf(z,p,k); -1
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
t=0:0.01:.5; time t [sec]
[c,x]=step(num,den,t);
zo=[]; po=[-10]; ko=-1;
[numo,deno]=zp2tf(zo,po,ko);
[co,xo]=step(numo,deno,t);
co=-z*co;
plot(t,c, 'b',t,co,'r');
xlabel('time t [sec]');
ylabel('(1):c(t), (2):co(t)');
75
 1

0.8

C (s)  
s  z  0.6

s  s  10  0.4

0.2

c(t), co(t)
1  1  0
C (s)    z
s  10  s  s  10  
  -0.2

-0.4
z=10
 1 1  -0.6

c(t )  e 10t  z    e10t  -0.8

 10 10 
-1
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
time t [sec]

0.5 5

0 3

z=50
c(t), co(t)

c(t), co(t)

z=5 2

-0.5 1

-1 -1
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
time t [sec] time t [sec]

76
 Skill-Assessment Exercise 4.7

PROBLEM: Determine the validity of a second-order step-response

approximation for each transfer function shown below.
185.71 s  7 
a. G ( s ) 
 s  6.5 s  10  s  20 
1 0.89 1.59 0.3
Laplace transform of step response is: C ( s )    
s s  20 s  10 s  6.5
197.14  s  7  A second-order approximation is not valid.
b. G ( s ) 
 s  6.9  s  10  s  20 
1 0.98 1.9 0.07
Laplace transform of step response is: C ( s )    
s s  20 s  10 s  6.9
A second-order approximation is valid.
1300
G(s) 
 s  6.5 s  10  s  20 
1 0.48 3.71 4.23
Laplace transform of step response is: C ( s )    
s s  20 s  10 s  6.5
77
Reduced Order Systems

78
Reduced Order Systems
12600(s  1)
Example: T(s) 
(s  3)(s  10)(s  60)(s  70)
Since the poles at –60 and –70 are far to the left, their contribution to the system
response is negligible (they decay very quickly to zero as e -60t and e-70t)The transfer 0.25
function can be formally simplified as follows:
0.2
12600(s  1)
T (s) 
s s (1)

(s  3)(s  10)60(  1)70(  1)

(1):y(t), (2):yr(t)
0.15

60 70 (2)

3(s  1) 0.1

  T(s) red uced

(s  3)(s  10) 0.05

z=-1; p=[-3 -10 -60 -70]; k=12600;

Use MATLAB to compare [num,den]=zp2tf(z,p,k); 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
the step responses of the t=0:0.01:1.2; [y,x]=step(num,den,t); time t [sec]

original and reduced-order
systems.
It can be seen from this
figure that step responses for
the original and reduced-
order (approximate) systems
almost overlap.
zr=-1; pr=[-3 -10]; kr=3; Figure : System step responses for the
[numr,denr]=zp2tf(zr,pr,kr); (1) original (____) and
[yr,xr]=step(numr,denr,t); (2) reduced-order approximate (------)
plot(t,y,t,yr,'--');
xlabel('time t [sec]');
ylabel('(1):y(t), (2):yr(t)');
grid; text(0.71,0.16,'(1)');
text(0.41,0.13,'(2)'); 79
???
80