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PROJECT MANAGEMENT
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Design 7
Purchase 12
of parts
16
Fabrication
4
Assembly
Tools of Planning: Network Technique
These are more sophisticated than the traditional bar chart. In these
techniques, the activities, events, and their inter-relationships are
represented by a network diagram, also called an arrow diagram.
I Level Plan : A highly summarised plan, the I level plan shows the broad
activities of the project, such as engineering design, contract negotiation,
procurement, construction, and commissioning with very elementary breakdown.
II Level Plan : The activities in the summary plan (at the I level) are shown in
greater detail in the II level plan. This permits a more detailed examination of
various stages of the project, so that inter-relationships can be properly established.
III Level Plan : This is the plan constructed in terms of cost accounts. It is useful
for lower levels of management. It helps them in week to week, or even day to
day, planning and control.
Project Control
Project control involves a regular comparison of performance against targets, a
search for the causes of deviation, and a commitment to check adverse
variances. It serves two major functions: (i) it ensures regular monitoring of
performance, and (ii) it motivates project personnel to strive for achieving
project objectives.
Given the above terms, the project may be monitored along the following lines:
Cost variance : BCWP – ACWP
Schedule variance in cost terms : BCWP – BCWS
Cost performance index : BCWP/ACWP
Schedule performance index : BCWP/BCWS
Estimated cost performance index : BCTW/(ACWP + ACC)
Performance Analysis : An Illustration
A project was begun on 1st January 20X0 and was expected to be completed by 30th
September 20X0. The project is being reviewed on 30 th June 20X0 when the following
information has been developed.
Orientation
Motivation
Group functioning
Authority
Since the project manager works largely with professionals and supervisory
personnel, the basis of the authority would be different from that found in
simple superior-subordinate relationships. For exercising leadership and
influence over professional people, he has to explain the logic and rationale
for the project activities; show receptivity to the suggestions made by others;
avoid unilateral imposition of decisions: eschew dogmatic postures; and
search for areas of agreement which can be the basis of acceptable solutions.
His effective authority would stem from his ability to develop a rapport
with the project personnel, his skill in resolving conflicts among various
people working on the project, his professional reputation and stature, his
skills in communication and persuasion, and his ability to act as a buffer
between the technical, engineering, financial, and commercial people involved
in the project.
Orientation
Most of the managers working for a project are usually engineers (or technologists) .
Typically, an engineer:
Works with physical laws, characterised by mathematical precision, as his
tools.
Adopts a structured, mechanical approach to his problem
Seeks an enduring solution to his problem
Attaches a high value on technical perfection
When an engineer assumes managerial responsibilities, he faces a very different
world in which he is supposed to :
Perform the tasks of planning, organising, directing, and controlling the
resources of the firm in a world of uncertainty.
Adopt a more creative approach to solve non-programmed and unstructured
problems
Attach greater importance to efficient utilisation of resources and resolution of
human relation problems.
Motivation
The project manager should bear in mind the following:
What can be done to minimise time and cost over – runs and thereby
improve the prospects of the successful completion of projects? While a lot
of things can be done to achieve this goal, the more important ones appear
to be as follows:
• Adequate formulation
• Sound project organisation
• Proper implementation planning
• Advance action
• Timely availability of funds
• Judicious equipment tendering and procurement
• Better contract management
• Effective monitoring
Essence of Project Management
The Project Management Institute (PMI) has developed a body of
knowledge termed the Project Management Book of Knowledge (PMBOK).
The PMBOK describes project management under nine areas as follows:
• Project integration
• Project scope management
• Project time management
• Project cost management
• Project quality management
• Project human resource management
• Project communications management
• Project risk management
• Project procurement planning
SUMMARY
The traditional form of organisation is not very suitable for project work because it has
no means of integrating different departments at levels below the top management and
it does not facilitate effective communication, coordination, and control.
Project organisation may take one of the following three forms: line and staff
organisation, divisional organsiation, and matrix organisation.
In the line and staff form of project organisation, a person is appointed with the primary
responsibility of coordinating the wok of the people in the functional departments.
Under the divisional form of project organisation, a separate division headed by the
project manager is set up to implement the project. In a matrix organisation, the
personnel working on the project have a responsibility to their functional superior as
well as to the project manager.
The line and functional form of organisation is conducive to an efficient use of
resources but is not suitable for an effective realisation of project objectives. The
divisional form of organisation, on the other hand, is suitable for an effective realisation
of project objectives but not conducive to an efficient use of resources. The matrix form
of organisation seeks to achieve the twin objectives of efficient use of resources and
effective realisation of project objectives, at the cost of greater organisational
complexity, of course.
Comprehensive project planning covers the following areas: project work, manpowr
and organisation, money, and information system.
The important stages in the life cycle of a project are: project development and
preliminary engineering, bidding and contract negotiations, engineering design,
purchase and procurement, construction, and commissioning.
The two important tools of planning are the bar chart and the network techniques. The
bar chart is a pictorial device in which the activities are represented by horizontal bars
on the time axis. In network techniques, the activities, events, and their inter-
relationships are represented by a network diagram
For large projects, a hierarchy of plans showing various levels of detail may be
prepared.
The traditional approach to project control, involving a comparison of the actual cost
with the budgeted cost, is referred to as variance analysis. This approach is inadequate
for project control for the following reasons: (i) it is backward-looking rather than
forward-looking, and (ii) it does not use the data effectively to provide integrated
control.
The modern approach to project control, referred to as performance analysis, involves
monitoring the project along the following lines:
Cost variance : Budgeted cost of work performed-
Actual cost of work performed
The modern approach to project control, referred to as performance analysis, involves
monitoring the project along the following lines:
Cost variance : Budgeted cost of work performed-
Actual cost of work performed
Schedule variance in cost terms : Budgeted cost of work performed –
Budgeted cost of work scheduled.
Cost performance index : Budgeted cost of work performed
/Actual cost of work scheduled
Schedule performance index : Budgeted cost of work performed
/Budgeted cost of work scheduled
Estimated cost performance index : Budgeted cost for total work/(Actual
cost of work performed + Additional
cost for completion)
To achieve satisfactory human relations in the project setting, the project manager must
successfully handle problems and challenges relating to (i) authority, (ii) orientation,
(iii) motivation, and (iv) group functioning.
Often, the project manager has to coordinate the efforts of various functional groups
(within the organisation) and outside agencies without the leverage of hierarchical
authority. His effective authority depends largely on his professional stature and inter-
personal skills.
The project manager has to strengthen the managerial orientation of project personnel,
particularly technical and engineering personnel.
In order to succeed in motivating personnel, the project manager must be a perceptive
observer of human beings, must have the ability to appreciate the variable needs of
human beings, must have skills in several styles of management suitable to different
situations, and must be sensitive to the reactions of people so that he can act
supportively rather than threateningly.
There are several stages, partially overlapping, in the formation of an effective group:
development of mutual trust, diminution of defensive behaviour, openness and candour
in communication, cooperation and supportive behaviour, and resolution of differences
by mutual negotiation.
Time and cost over-runs of projects are very common in India, particularly in the public
sector. Hence, projects tend to become uneconomical and economic development is
adversely affected.
The important pre-requisites for successful completion of projects are : (i) adequate
formulation, (ii) sound project organisation, (iii) proper implementation planning, (iv)
advance action, (v) timely availability of funds, (vi) judicious equipment tendering and
procurement, (vii) better contract management, and (viii) effective monitoring.