Chapter 1

Introduction
What is Software Engineering

 Software engineering has two parts: software and engineering.

 Software is considered to be collection of executable programming code, associated

libraries and documentations.
A program is an executable code, which serves some computational purpose

 Engineering on the other hand, is all about developing products, using well-defined
scientific principles and methods.
Cont…
 Software engineering is an engineering branch associated with
development of software product using well-defined scientific principles,
methods and procedures.

 The outcome of software engineering is an efficient and reliable software

product.
◦  software product is a Software, made for a specific requirement.
Need of Software Engineering

 Software engineering needed because of higher rate of change in user

requirements and environment on which the software is working.
 Generally we need a software engineering for the following reasons.
◦ Large software - As the size of software become large engineering has to step to give it a
scientific process.
◦ Scalability- If the software process were not based on scientific and engineering concepts, it
would be easier to re-create new software than to scale an existing one.
◦ Cost- The cost of software remains high if proper process is not adapted.
◦ Dynamic Nature-If the nature of software is always changing, new enhancements need to
be done in the existing one. This is where software engineering plays a good role.
◦ Quality Management- Better process of software development provides better and quality
software product.
Software processes & Models
What is SDLC?

 SDLC is a process followed for a software project, within a software

organization.

 It consists of a detailed plan describing how to develop, maintain, replace

and alter or enhance specific software.

 The life cycle defines a methodology for improving the quality of software
and the overall development process.
Cont…
The following figure is a graphical representation of the various stages of a
typical SDLC.
Stages in SDLC
Stage 1: Planning and Requirement Analysis
◦ Requirement analysis is the most important and fundamental stage in SDLC.

◦ It is performed by the senior members of the team. with inputs from the customer, the
sales department, market surveys and domain experts in the industry.

◦ This information is used to plan the basic project approach and to conduct product
feasibility.

◦ Planning for the quality assurance requirements and identification of the risks
associated with the project is also done in the planning stage.
Cont…
Stage 2: Defining Requirements
◦ During this stage product requirements is clearly defined and documented and also
approved from the customer or the market analysts.

◦ This is done through an SRS (Software Requirement Specification)document.

◦ SRS document is a document which consists of all the product requirements to be

designed and developed during the project life cycle.
Cont…
Stage 3: Designing the Product Architecture
◦ Product architects use SRS as a reference.
◦ Based on the requirements specified in SRS, usually more than one design approach
for the product architecture is proposed and documented in a DDS (Design Document
Specification).
◦ This DDS is reviewed by all the important stakeholders based on various parameters
like, risk assessment, product robustness, design modularity, budget and time
constraints, the best design approach.
◦ A design approach clearly defines all the architectural modules of the product along
with its communication and data flow representation with the external and third party
modules (if any).
◦ The internal design of all the modules of the proposed architecture should be clearly
defined with the minutest of the details in DDS.
Cont…
Stage 4: Building or Developing the Product
◦ In this stage of SDLC the actual development starts and the product is built.

◦ The programming code is generated as per DDS during this stage.

◦ Developers must follow the coding guidelines defined by their organization.

◦ Different high level programming languages such as C, C++, Pascal, Java and PHP
are used for coding with respect to the type of software being developed.
Cont…
Stage 5: Testing the Product
◦ This stage is usually a subset of all the stages as in the modern SDLC models.

◦ The testing activities are mostly involved in all the stages of SDLC.

◦ It’s a stage where product defects are reported, tracked, fixed and retested, until the
product reaches the quality standards defined in the SRS.
Cont…
Stage 6: Deployment in the Market and Maintenance
◦ Once the product is tested and ready to be deployed it is released formally in the
appropriate market.
◦ Sometimes product deployment happens in stages as per the business strategy of that
organization.
◦ The product may first be released in a limited segment and tested in the real business
environment (UAT- User acceptance testing).
◦ Then based on the feedback, the product may be released as it is or with suggested
enhancements in the targeting market segment.
◦ After the product is released in the market, its maintenance is done for the existing
customer base.
SDLC Models

 There are various software development life cycle models defined and designed which are
followed during the software development process.
 Each process model follows a Series of steps unique to its type to ensure success in the
process of software development.
 Following are the most important and popular SDLC models followed in the industry −
 Waterfall Model
 Iterative Model
 Spiral Model
 V-Model
 Big Bang Model
 Agile model
 RAD Model
Waterfall Model
 The Waterfall Model was the first Process Model to be introduced.

 It is also referred to as a linear-sequential life cycle model b/c it

illustrates the software development process in a linear sequential flow.

 It is very simple to understand and use.

 In a waterfall model, each phase must be completed before the next phase
can begin and there is no overlapping in the phases.
Waterfall Model - Design

 In this Waterfall model, typically, the outcome of one phase acts as the
input for the next phase sequentially
Waterfall Model - Application

 Every software developed is different and requires a suitable SDLC

approach to be followed based on the internal and external factors.
 Some situations where the use of Waterfall model is most appropriate are
◦ Requirements are very well documented, clear and fixed.
◦ Product definition is stable.
◦ Technology is understood and is not dynamic.
◦ There are no ambiguous requirements.
◦ Ample resources with required expertise are available to support the product.
◦ The project is short.
Waterfall Model - Advantages

 Some of the major advantages of the Waterfall Model are as follows

◦ Simple and easy to understand and use
◦ Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model. Each phase has specific deliverables
and a review process.
◦ Phases are processed and completed one at a time.
◦ Works well for smaller projects where requirements are very well understood.
◦ Clearly defined stages.
◦ Well understood milestones.
◦ Process and results are well documented.
Waterfall Model - Disadvantages

 The major disadvantages of the Waterfall Model are as follows −

◦ No working software is produced until late during the life cycle.
◦ High amounts of risk and uncertainty.
◦ Not a good model for complex and object-oriented projects.
◦ Poor model for long and ongoing projects.
◦ Not suitable for the projects where requirements are at a moderate to high risk of
changing. So, risk and uncertainty is high with this process model.
◦ It is difficult to measure progress within stages.
◦ Cannot accommodate changing requirements.
◦ Adjusting scope during the life cycle can end a project.
Iterative model
 In this model, iterative process starts with a simple implementation of a
small set of the software requirements and iteratively enhances the
evolving versions until the complete system is implemented and ready to
be deployed.
 An iterative life cycle model does not attempt to start with a full

specification of requirements.
 Instead, development begins by specifying and implementing just part of

the software, which is then reviewed to identify further requirements.

 This process is then repeated, producing a new version of the software at

the end of each iteration of the model.

Iterative Model - Design

 The basic idea behind this method is to develop a system through repeated cycles
(iterative) and in smaller portions at a time (incremental).
 The following illustration is a representation of the Iterative and Incremental model
−
Iterative Model - Application

 This model is most often used in the following scenarios −

◦ Requirements of the complete system are clearly defined and understood.
◦ Major requirements must be defined; however, some functionalities or requested
enhancements may evolve with time.
◦ There is a time to the market constraint.
◦ A new technology is being used and is being learnt by the development team while
working on the project.
◦ Resources with needed skill sets are not available and are planned to be used on
contract basis for specific iterations.
◦ There are some high-risk features and goals which may change in the future.
Iterative model-Advantages
 The advantages of the Iterative and Incremental SDLC Model are as follows −
◦ Some working functionality can be developed quickly and early in the life cycle.
◦ Results are obtained early and periodically.
◦ Parallel development can be planned.
◦ Progress can be measured.
◦ Less costly to change the scope/requirements.
◦ Testing and debugging during smaller iteration is easy.
◦ Risks are identified and resolved during iteration; and each iteration is an easily managed
milestone.
◦ Issues, challenges and risks identified from each increment can be utilized/applied to the next
increment.
◦ It supports changing requirements.
◦ Initial Operating time is less.
◦ Better suited for large and mission-critical projects.
Iterative Model-Disadvantages
 The disadvantages of the Iterative and Incremental SDLC Model are as follows
◦ More resources may be required.
◦ Although cost of change is lesser, but it is not very suitable for changing requirements.
◦ More management attention is required.
◦ System architecture or design issues may arise because not all requirements are gathered in
the beginning of the entire life cycle.
◦ Defining increments may require definition of the complete system.
◦ Not suitable for smaller projects.
◦ Management complexity is more.
◦ End of project may not be known which is a risk.
◦ Highly skilled resources are required for risk analysis.
◦ Projects progress is highly dependent upon the risk analysis phase.
Spiral model
 The spiral model combines the idea of iterative development with the
systematic, controlled aspects of the waterfall model.

 It allows incremental releases of the product or incremental refinement

through each iteration around the spiral.
Spiral Model - Design

 The spiral model has four phases. A software project repeatedly passes
through these phases in iterations called Spirals.
1)Identification Phase
◦ In this phase the business requirements in the baseline spiral are gathered.
◦ system, subsystem and unit requirements are gathered and understood.
2) The Design phase
◦ starts with the conceptual design in the baseline spiral
◦ and involves architectural design, logical design of modules, physical product design
and the final design in the subsequent spirals.
Cont…
3) Construct or Build
◦ It refers to production of the actual software product at every spiral.
◦ a POC (Proof of Concept) is developed in this phase to get customer feedback.
◦ Then in the subsequent spirals with higher clarity on requirements and design details a
working model of the software called build is produced with a version number. These
builds are sent to the customer for feedback.
4) Evaluation and Risk Analysis
◦ It includes identifying, estimating and monitoring the technical feasibility and
management risks.
◦ After testing the build, at the end of first iteration, the customer evaluates the software
and provides feedback.
Cont…
 The following illustration is a representation of the Spiral Model, listing
the activities in each phase.
Spiral Model Application

 The Spiral Model is widely used in the software industry as it is in sync

with the natural development process of any product.
 The following pointers explain the typical uses of a Spiral Model −
◦ When there is a budget constraint and risk evaluation is important.
◦ For medium to high-risk projects.
◦ Long-term project commitment because of potential changes to economic priorities as
the requirements change with time.
◦ Customer is not sure of their requirements which is usually the case.
◦ Requirements are complex and need evaluation to get clarity.
◦ New product line which should be released in phases to get enough customer feedback.
◦ Significant changes are expected in the product during the development cycle.
Spiral Model - Pros and Cons

 The advantages of the Spiral SDLC Model are as follows −

◦ Changing requirements can be accommodated.
◦ Allows extensive use of prototypes.
◦ Requirements can be captured more accurately.
◦ Users see the system early.
◦ Development can be divided into smaller parts and the risky parts can be developed
earlier which helps in better risk management.
Spiral Model - Pros and Cons

 The disadvantages of the Spiral SDLC Model are as follows −

◦ Management is more complex.
◦ End of the project may not be known early.
◦ Not suitable for small or low risk projects and could be expensive for small projects.
◦ Process is complex
◦ Spiral may go on indefinitely.
◦ Large number of intermediate stages requires excessive documentation.
V-model
 The V-model is an SDLC model where execution of processes happens in a
sequential manner in a V-shape.

 It is also known as Verification and Validation model.

 The V-Model is an extension of the waterfall model and is based on the

association of a testing phase for each corresponding development stage.

 This is a highly-disciplined model and the next phase starts only after
completion of the previous phase.
V-Model - Design

 The following illustration depicts the different phases in a V-Model of the

SDLC.
V- Model ─ Application

 V- Model application is almost the same as the waterfall model, as both the
models are of sequential type.
 The following pointers are some of the most suitable scenarios to use the

V-Model application.
◦ Requirements are well defined, clearly documented and fixed.
◦ Product definition is stable.
◦ Technology is not dynamic and is well understood by the project team.
◦ There are no ambiguous or undefined requirements.
◦ The project is short
V-Model - Pros and Cons

 The advantages of the V-Model method are as follows −

◦ This is a highly-disciplined model and Phases are completed one at a time.

◦ Works well for smaller projects where requirements are very well understood.

◦ Simple and easy to understand and use.

◦ Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model. Each phase has specific deliverables
and a review process.
V-Model - Pros and Cons

 The disadvantages of the V-Model method are as follows −

◦ High risk and uncertainty.
◦ Not a good model for complex and object-oriented projects.
◦ Poor model for long and ongoing projects.
◦ Not suitable for the projects where requirements are at a moderate to high risk of
changing.
◦ Once an application is in the testing stage, it is difficult to go back and change a
functionality.
◦ No working software is produced until late during the life cycle.
Big Bang model
 The Big Bang model is an SDLC model where we do not follow any specific process.

 The development just starts with the required money and efforts as the input, and the
output is the software developed which may or may not be as per customer
requirement.

 Even the customer is not sure about what exactly he wants and the requirements are
implemented on the fly without much analysis.

 Usually this model is followed for small projects where the development teams are
very small.
Big Bang Model ─ Application

 This model is ideal for small projects with one or two developers working together.

 It is also useful for academic or practice projects.

 It is an ideal model for the product where requirements are not well understood and
the final release date is not given.
Big Bang Model - Pros and Cons

 The advantages of the Big Bang Model are as follows −

◦ This is a very simple model
◦ Little or no planning required
◦ Easy to manage
◦ Very few resources required
◦ Gives flexibility to developers
◦ It is a good learning aid for new comers or students.
Big Bang Model - Pros and Cons

 The disadvantages of the Big Bang Model are as follows −

◦ Very High risk and uncertainty.
◦ Not a good model for complex and object-oriented projects.
◦ Poor model for long and ongoing projects.
◦ Can turn out to be very expensive if requirements are misunderstood.
Agile model
 Agile model is a combination of iterative and incremental process models with focus on
process adaptability and customer satisfaction by rapid delivery of working software product.
 Agile Methods break the product into small incremental builds. These builds are provided in
iterations.
 Each iteration typically lasts from about one to three weeks. Every iteration involves cross
functional teams working simultaneously on various areas like −
◦ Planning
◦ Requirements Analysis
◦ Design
◦ Coding
◦ Unit Testing and
◦ Acceptance Testing.
◦ At the end of the iteration, a working product is displayed to the customer and important stakeholders.
What is Agile
 In Agile, the tasks are divided to time boxes (small time frames) to deliver specific
features for a release.

 Iterative approach is taken and working software build is delivered after each
iteration.

 Each build is incremental in terms of features; the final build holds all the features
required by the customer.
 Cont…

Here is a graphical illustration of the

Agile Model −
 Agile Manifesto principles
 Individuals and interactions − In Agile development, self-organization and
motivation are important, as are interactions like co-location and pair programming.
 Working software − Demo working software is considered the best means of
communication with the customers to understand their requirements, instead of just
depending on documentation.
 Customer collaboration − As the requirements cannot be gathered completely in
the beginning of the project due to various factors, continuous customer interaction
is very important to get proper product requirements.
 Responding to change − Agile Development is focused on quick responses to
change and continuous development.
Agile Model - Pros and Cons

 The advantages of the Agile Model are as follows −

◦ Is a very realistic approach to software development.
◦ Promotes teamwork and cross training.
◦ Functionality can be developed rapidly and demonstrated.
◦ Resource requirements are minimum.
◦ Suitable for fixed or changing requirements
◦ Delivers early partial working solutions.
◦ Good model for environments that change steadily.
◦ Minimal rules, documentation easily employed.
◦ Enables concurrent development and delivery within an overall planned context.
◦ Little or no planning required.
◦ Easy to manage.
◦ Gives flexibility to developers
Agile Model - Pros and Cons

 The disadvantages of the Agile Model are as follows −

◦ Not suitable for handling complex dependencies.
◦ More risk of sustainability, maintainability and extensibility.
◦ An overall plan, an agile leader and agile project management(PM) practice is a must
without which it will not work.
◦ Strict delivery management orders the scope, functionality to be delivered, and
adjustments to meet the deadlines.
◦ Depends heavily on customer interaction.
◦ There is a very high individual dependency.
◦ Transfer of technology to new team members may be quite challenging due to lack of
documentation.
Rapid application development Model
 RAD is a software development methodology that uses minimal planning in favor
of rapid prototyping.
 A prototype is a working model that is functionally equivalent to a component of
the product.
 In the RAD model, the functional modules are developed in parallel as prototypes
and are integrated to make the complete product for faster product delivery.
 RAD projects follow iterative and incremental model and have small teams
comprising of developers, domain experts, customer representatives and other IT
resources working progressively on their component or prototype.
 The most important aspect for this model to be successful is to make sure that the
prototypes developed are reusable.
RAD Model Design

 RAD model distributes the analysis, design, build and test phases into a series of
short, iterative development cycles.

 Following are the various phases of the RAD Model −

◦ Business Modeling
◦ Data Modeling.
◦ Process Modeling
◦ Application Generation
◦ Testing and Turnover
Cont…
 The following illustration describes the RAD Model in detail.
RAD Model - Application

 RAD model can be applied successfully to the projects in which clear

modularization is possible. If the project cannot be broken into modules, RAD
may fail.
 The following pointers describe the typical scenarios where RAD can be used −

◦ RAD should be used only when a system can be modularized to be delivered in an

incremental manner.
◦ It should be used if there is a high availability of designers for Modelling.
◦ It should be used only if the budget permits use of automated code generating tools.
◦ RAD SDLC model should be chosen only if domain experts are available with relevant
business knowledge.
◦ Should be used where the requirements change during the project and working prototypes
are to be presented to customer in small iterations of 2-3 months.
RAD Model - Pros and Cons

 RAD model enables rapid delivery as it reduces the overall development time due to the reusability of
the components and parallel development.
 RAD works well only if high skilled engineers are available and the customer is also committed to
achieve the targeted prototype in the given time frame. If there is commitment lacking on either side
the model may fail.
 The advantages of the RAD Model are as follows −
◦ Changing requirements can be accommodated.
◦ Progress can be measured.
◦ Iteration time can be short with use of powerful RAD tools.
◦ Productivity with fewer people in a short time.
◦ Reduced development time.
Cont…

◦ Increases reusability of components.

◦ Quick initial reviews occur.
◦ Encourages customer feedback.
◦ Integration from very beginning solves a lot of integration issues.
 The disadvantages of the RAD Model are as follows −
◦ Dependency on technically strong team members for identifying business requirements.
◦ Only system that can be modularized can be built using RAD.
◦ High dependency on Modelling skills.
◦ Inapplicable to cheaper projects as cost of Modelling and automated code generation is very
high.
◦ Management complexity is more.
◦ Suitable for systems that are component based and scalable.
◦ Requires user involvement throughout the life cycle.
◦ Suitable for project requiring shorter development times.
Software Process assessment

 A software process assessment is a disciplined examination of the software processes used by an

organization, based on a process model.

 The assessment includes the identification and characterization of current practices, identifying areas
of strengths and weaknesses, and the ability of current practices to control or avoid significant causes
of poor (software) quality, cost, and schedule.

 A software assessment (or audit) can be of three types.

◦ A self-assessment (first-party assessment) is performed internally by an organization's own personnel.
◦ A second-party assessment is performed by an external assessment team or the organization is assessed by a customer.
◦ A third-party assessment is performed by an external party or (e.g., a supplier being assessed by a third party to verify its
ability to enter contracts with a customer).
Cont…
 Software process assessments are performed in an open and collaborative environment.

 They are for the use of the organization to improve its software processes, and the results are
confidential to the organization.

 The organization being assessed must have members on the assessment team.
Any Question?