SPECIAL SENSES

DR OKWUOGORI JOY
DEPARTMENT OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF ABUJA, NIGERIA.
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EYE
• Visual System

• Structure of the Eye

• Optics

• Eye as an Optical Instrument

 VISUAL SYSTEM
• Defn: various physiological components involved in vision

VISION

- detection of electromagnetic waves of light

- the eyes are composed of an optical portion, which focuses the visual image
on the receptor cells, which transforms the visual image into a pattern of graded
and action potential.

- the receptors of the eyes are sensitive only to a tiny portion of the vast
spectrum of electromagnetic radiation referred to as Visible light.
• Radiant energy results from electromagnetic radiation and described in
terms of wavelengths and frequencies.

• Wavelength (λ)is the distance between two successive wave peaks of the
electromagnetic radiation.

• wavelengths varies from several kms. at the long-wave radio end of the
spectrum to fractions of a millimetre at the gamma-ray end.

• Frequency (f) is the number of cycles per second /number of waves that pass
a point per unit time(hertz: Hz).

• The freq. of a electromagnetic radiation varies inversely with wavelength.

Wavelength and Frequency
• Visible spectrum are those wavelengths capable of stimulating the
receptors of the eyes (from 400 to 700nm).

• Focal length of the lens is the distance between the lens & the image
sensor when the subject is in focus.
 measure of how strongly the optical system converges or
diverges light.

• Focal point : point at which rays meet after reflection or refraction.

• Axial length (visual axis of the eye) : dist. btw the ant. surface of the
cornea and the fovea centralis ( av. approx. 23.3mm)
 VISUAL SYSTEM
• Optic axis (Anatomical axis): line joining the ant. pole (centre of ant.
curvature) and the post. pole (centre of post. curvature)

• Nodal point - optical centre of the eye

- pt. thru which light pass without refraction
- found in the lens
• Near point of accommodation - is the shortest dist. where an obj. can be seen
clearly.
- the eye is at maximum accommodation to focus the image at the fovea
centralis.
- the near point recedes back with advancing age due to Presbyopia

• Far point of accommodation - is the point at the farthest dist. from the eye at
which an obj. can be seen clearly without accommodation

• Range of accommodation – is the distance between the far point and near point
of accomodation.
- It is the range of distance over which an object can be accurately focused on the
retina
• Amplitude of accommodation: is the maximum increase in optical
power that an eye can achieve in adjusting its focus from far to near.
 STRUCTURE OF THE EYEBALL
• Human eyeball- specialized globe shaped sense organ
• 3 layers/coats

 Outer Protective layer

 consists of Cornea(ant. transparent 1/6th) & Sclera (post. opaque, 5/6th)
Cornea: major component of the refractive power of the eye
- accounts for approx. 2/3rd of eye's optical power
- converging power : 40-43 D (twice that of the lens)
- 5 Layers- epithelial layer (stratified epithelium)
- Bowman's mb (ant. elastic lamina)
- Stromal layer (substantial proper)
- Descemet’s membrane (post. elastic lamina)
- Endothelial layer ( layer of endothelial cells)
 sensitive to pain, touch, pressure and cold
 nt vascularized - nourishment from the aqueous humour
• Sclera - opaque tough mb.
- post. part pierced by
the optic nerve.

Importance: provides protective

layer for delicate structure of the
eye.
 Middle layer - Uvea (Vascular layer)
- Choroid, Ciliary body, Iris

Iris - thin coloured structure that surrounds the pupil

- pigmented (determines the colour of the eye)
- Intrinsic eye muscles
Constrictor pupillae (circular ms, pupillary constriction) –PΣ innervation

Dilator pupillae (radial ms, dilates pupil) - Σ innervation

- defines the ant. and post. chambers

Choroid - gives this layer its vascularity (rich capillary plexus, small arteries &
veins)
 Ciliary body
 Is a circular structure that is an extension of the iris

 Composed of the Ciliary muscle and the Ciliary processes

• Ciliary ms- parasympathetic & sympathetic innervation
- changes the shape of the lens
• Ciliary processes - cuboidal epithelial cells that secrete aqueous
humour / AH production

Impt of the middle layer: main nutritive tss. of the eyeball

 Inner Layer (Retina)
- light- sensitive mb. ( contains light- sensitive receptor cells (rods &
cones) and several types of neurons
- an outer pigmented portion
- inner neural portion
- 10 layers

Fundus - Optic disc (Blind spot/Optic papilla) and Macula Lutea

Optic disc - spot on the retina formed by convergence of axons of the
ganglion cells while forming the optic nv.
- absence of photoreceptors (rods & cones)
 Macula Lutea (yellow spot)
- oval- shaped pigmented area
- at the centre is Fovea centralis (large conc. of cones)
- macula degeneration- blindness

Pupil
- opening on the iris
- size varies : age, person to person, emotional state, level of
alertness, degree of accommodation and ambient temp.
 Lens
- biconvex, avascular
- held in position by suspensory lig. which attaches it to ciliary body
- composed of 65% water and 35% protein

Eyelids - Palpebral fissure: opening btw the eyelids

- Levator palpebrae superioris (LPS) : elevates the upper eyelid
- contraction of orbicularis oculi and relaxation of LPS- Closure
of eyelids
- presence of meibomian glands
- Meibomian glands: secretes sebum (Lipid content) onto the
surface of the eyes to slow the evaporation of tears.
 CATARACT
• Is the opacity of the lens that leads to blurring of vision

• Cataract can be Congenital or Acquired (metabolic, aging, metabolic,

trauma, drugs etc.)

• results from metabolic disorders which leads to degenerative changes

in the lenticular tissue.

• It is common in older (senile cataract) and diabetic patients due to

disturbance of glucose metabolism in the lens → opacity.
 CATARACT
• Exposure to UV rays and high temp. also causes denaturation of lens
protein → coagulation and deposition of the proteins →opacity or loss of
transparency → disruption in the transmission of light to the retina.

• It is the leading cause of blindness worldwide.

Closure of eyelids - protective reflex
- during sleep
- spontaneous blinking
- voluntary closure

Conjunctiva- mucous mb. lines the globe

- bulbar portion( lining the eyeball), palpebral portion (lining
inner surface of the eyelids)
- lubricated by secretion of the lacrimal glands

Compartments of the eye (3)- Anterior chamber

- Posterior chamber
- Vitreous chamber
LACRIMAL GLANDS
 LACRIMAL GLANDS

• located beneath the lateral portion of eyelids

• secretes tears

• spread by blinking

• drained via lacrimal ducts & lacrimal sac into Nasolacrimal duct in the nasal
cavity

• stimulated by PΣ fibres of facial nv

• chemical and mech. irritants, even pain & emotions -production of tears
LACRIMAL APPARATUS
 FUNCTIONS OF TEARS
1. Moistening of cornea and conjunctiva

2. Prevents friction during movement of the eyelids.

3. Antibacterial function

4. flushes out irritants/foreign matter

 INTRAOCULAR FLUID (IOF)
• IOF - Aqueous (thin) and Vitreous Humour ( viscous)

AQUEOUS HUMOUR
- composition: water(98.7%) , solids( 1.3%)
- solids : Organic- glucose, albumin, globulin, ascorbic acid(high),
Igs
Inorganic- Na⁺, Ca²⁺, k⁺, Mg²⁺, Cl⁻, HCO3⁻ etc.
Circulation and Drainage of Aqueous Humour

• AH produced from pars plicata of the ciliary processes

AH produced in ciliary processes → through spaces btw susp. lig→

posterior chamber → (through pupil) anterior chamber

(via limbus) → trabeculae meshwork → canal of Schlemm→

venous system.
Circulation and Drainage of Aqueous
Humour
Circulation and Drainage of Aqueous
Humour
Circulation and Drainage of Aqueous
Humour
 Functions of Aqueous Humour
• provides nutrients and O2 for avascular tss

• removes products of metabolism and toxic subts

• anti-oxidative fxn (high conc. of ascorbic acid)

• role in immune responses of the eye to inflam & infxn (IgG)

• inflates globe and provides mech(s) for maintaining IOP

• provides optical clear medium for vision (RI= 1.335)

 GLAUCOMA
• Is an eye condition usually but not always associated with elevated IOP which
damages the optic nerve and can lead to blindness.

• Glaucoma not assos. with elevated IOP is believed to be due to poor

regulation of blood flow to the optic nerve

• caused by obstruction of the trabecular meshwork which hinders the drainage

of fluid.

• may also be due to increased production of fluid

• Is the major cause of Irreversible blindness.

 OCULAR MUSCLES
• Two (2) groups

1. Intrinsic ms- constrictor & dilator pupillae ms, ciliary ms

2. Extrinsic ms- 4 Recti ms and 2 oblique ms

SO4 - Trochlear nv
LR6 - Abducens nv
others - Occulomotor nv
 EXTRINSIC MUSCLES OF THE
EYE
 OCULAR MOVEMENT
• ADDUCTION( MR MAINLY, SR & IR)- moves the eyeball horizontally
medially
• ABDUCTION (LR MAINLY, SO&IO) - moves the eyeball horizontally
laterally
• ELEVATION( SR MAINLY&IO)- move the eyeball upward
• DEPRESSION( IR MAINLY & SO)- move the eyeball downward
• EXTORSION ( IO MAINLY & IR)- the cornea moves laterally along the
anteroposterior axis
• INTORSION ( SO MAINLY & SR) - the cornea moves medially along the
anteroposterior axis
OCULAR MOVEMENTS
OCULAR MOVEMENT
 OCULAR MOVEMENT
• Damage to the muscles or the nerve that controls ocular movement

- Diplopia / Double vision

- Strabismus
• the visual axes of the eyes are not parallel
• and the eyes appears to be looking in different directions.
DIPLOPIA
STRABISMUS
 THE OPTICS OF VISION
• Study of light and its behaviour

• parallel rays passing into a denser medium with a convex surface

(lens) are brought into a focus.

• this is as a function
 radius of curvature
 ratio of Refraction indices of the media

• light wave can be represented by a line drawn in the direction in

which the wave is travelling.
 THE OPTICS OF VISION
• Light waves are propagated in all directions from every point of a
visible object.

• before an accurate image of a point on the object is achieved, these

divergent light waves must pass through an optical system that
focuses them back into a point

• the image of the object being viewed is focused on the retina.

 EYE AS AN OPTICAL INSTRUMENT
• simple and an adaptive optical instrument

• good vision - image formed on the retina is of sufficient quality.

• crystalline lens changes its shape to focus objects.

• cornea - most impt. part of refraction

- focus is fixed compared to the lens ( adjust the curvature)