CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO REINFORED
CONCRETE DESIGN
At the end of this topic, student should be able to:

1. List the advantages and disadvantages of reinforced

concrete. (PLO1,C1,K).
2. Explain the stages in the design and the design
strength of the materials. (PLO1, C2, K).
3. Explain the behavior of beam under loading and the
importance of tension reinforcement. (PLO1, C3, K.
1.1 INTRODUCTION

A structure is an organized combination of connected

parts designed to carry loads and provide adequate
rigidity. Design is a process of selecting the material and
determining the size of the members of a structure to be
built. The primary aim of design is to achieve a safe
structure that is functional and can be built and maintain
with the minimum cost.
1.2 REINFORCED CONCRETE

Concrete is a composite material

consists of cement, aggregate, sand and
water with the approximate proportion as
shown in Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.1: Concrete cube Figure 1.2: Concrete constituent

The strength of hardened concrete is

basically controlled by the water/cement
ratio. Higher water/cement ratio used in a
mixture produces workable concrete but
unfortunately will result in a weaker
concrete when hardened. The
relationship of workability and strength is Figure 1.3: Effect of water/cement ratio
shown in Figure. Concrete is a material
strong in compression but weak in
tension. It has high resistance to heat
and durable if expose to the environment.
Since it is weak in tension,
reinforcement is needed to strengthen
it. Reinforced concrete is thus a
concrete that is strengthen using steel
bars/reinforcement as shown in
Figure 1.4 and Figure 1.5. Steel bar is Figure 1.4: Concrete is high in compressive strength but low in tensile
strong in tension. It is also strong in strength

compression but it is rather weak in

lateral stability during compression
and lost most of it strength during fire.
Steel can easily corrode if it is not
protected from the environment. The
complementary properties of these
two materials give a material that is
strong in various aspects.
Figure 1.5: Steel bars is embedded in concrete (reinforcing)
provide tensile strength
The advantages of using reinforced concrete in structure are:
1) Concrete is cheaper than steel.
2) Good combination of concrete and steel:

 Bond between concrete and steel prevents slip of the steel bar as shown
in Figure 1.6. The bond action allows the transfer of tensile stress from
the concrete into the steel bars.
 Concrete covering prevent water intrusion and bar corrosion.
 Similar rate of thermal expansion. Concrete thermal expansion is
between 0.000010 to 0.000013 where else steel is 0.000012.

Figure 1.6: Excellent bond action between steel bar and concrete prevents slip
 3) Durability of concrete protects the steel from external elements such as fire and moisture.
4) Continuity from monolithic joint (no connection interruption or design is needed at joints)
as shown in Figure 1.7.

5) The reinforced concrete building system is more durable than any other building system.
6) Reinforced concrete, as a fluid material in the beginning, can be economically molded
into a nearly limitless range of shapes.
7) The maintenance cost of reinforced concrete is very low.
8) As reinforced concrete can be molded to any shape required, it is widely used in precast
structural components. It yields rigid members with minimum apparent deflection.
9) Compared to the use of steel in structure, reinforced concrete requires less skilled labor for
the erection of structure.
1.3 PROJECT PROCEDURE

• A project begins when the client whether an individual, government or company

intent to built a building, than an architect is consulted ( if the structure is
bridges, airport, water storage tanks or similar structure, than engineers will be
consulted) to foresee the owner intention such as shape, function and the
estimated cost of the building.

• An architect or engineer (depends on the project) will try to understand the client
needs and try to collect as much information as possible from the client point of
view. After deciding on several alternative systems, they will propose a suitable
design (based on the material and method of construction) which is presented in
the form of architecture drawings.

• Based on these drawings, engineer will decide and prepare the structural
drawing showing the skeleton of the structure and the position of the main
elements of the structure such as beam, column, footings and others.
Then the analysis of the structure is carried out such as calculating the loads and
determining the forces acting on each structural element. The size of the element,
its position and the amount of reinforcement is calculated and is shown in the
structure detailing drawing. The project implementation procedures and the process
of designing a structure is as shown in Figure 1.8.
1.4 ENGINEERING DESIGN PROCESS
• Structural engineering is the study of how the various components of a
building or other structure act together to transmit forces down to the
foundations. The stages in the design process are as illustrated in
Figure 1.9. Stages in the process are:

• Structural planning stage: When a structural scheme is devised to

suit both the purpose of the building and the site conditions.

• Structural analysis stage: When the loads on the structure are

determined and the way that the loads disperse through the
structure is analyzed using the principles of structural mechanics.

• Structural element design stage: When the size and properties of

each member are determined.
continue…

• Structural detailing stage: When detail drawings are produced to

illustrate how the structure is to be constructed on site.

• Structural specification stage: When specification clauses are

compiled to define the standard of materials and workmanship to be
used.

• Construction stage: When the structure is built, with appropriate

supervision, inspection and testing to ensure that it complies with the
drawings and the specification.
Figure 1.9: Design process
1.5 REINFORCED CONCRETE
STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
• Reinforced concrete is being used as one of the principal material used in
structures. Overall economy of reinforced concrete with the advantages of
corrosion and fire resistance make it suitable for most structures such as structural
frames, retaining walls, water retaining structures, highways and bridges.

• Structural system is the particular method of assembling and constructing structural

elements of a building so that they support and transmit applied loads safely to the
ground without exceeding the allowable stresses in the members.

• Typical reinforced concrete structural system are: (a) Cantilever Construction (b)
Simply supported construction (c) Continuous Construction (d) Precast/Prestressed
Beam, Slab and Box Girder (e) Hinges Construction (f) Suspension and Cable
Stayed Construction (g) Shell Construction (h) Frame Construction.
Thesereinforced concrete structural system are illustrated in Figure 1.10(a) to
Figure 1.10(h).
1.6 REINFORCED CONCRETE ELEMENTS

Generally, a reinforced concrete

building consists of several
elements such as beam, slab,
column, wall, stair and foundation
as shown in Figure 1.11. The load
on the floor which consists of the
self-weight of the slab and other
loads imposed on the floor will be
carried by the secondary beams
(joist). The load from the
secondary beams will then be
transferred to the main beams
(girder). The load on the beam will
in turn transfer to the column and
finally to the footing where the
load will be spread to the ground
via the piles.
1.7 THE AIM OF DESIGN
1) To achieve an acceptable probability that the structure will perform
satisfactorily during its intended life.

2) With an appropriate degree of safety, the structure should sustain all

loads and deformations of normal construction and use, have
adequate durability, and resistance to effects of misuse and fire.

3) Calculations alone do not produce safe, serviceable and durable

structures. Equally important are the suitability of materials, quality
control and supervision of workmanship during construction.

4) To produce a structure which is economical to construct, maintain and

service throughout its design life.
1.8 DESIGN CODE OF PRACTICE
• During the design stage, an engineer always refers to the code of
practice for guidance. Code of practice is a document that specified the
best practices accumulated from experience engineers and
researchers. Malaysia generally has been using British Code of
Practice BS 8110 in the design of reinforced concrete structure.

• However, by 2010 United Kingdom has withdrawn BS8110 and adopts

Eurocode 2 (EC2). Since Malaysia has been using British Standards
since its introduction in 1985, the withdrawal of British Standard means
no further maintenance of British Standard in future. Standard Malaysia
and SIRIM Bhd. therefore has made a stand to adopt EC2 to be used
by engineers in designing reinforced concrete structure in Malaysia.
1.9 EUROCODE
• This manual is mostly based on a set of codes produced for use throughout the
European Union – the Eurocodes. Each country in the European Union defines how
each code is to be used by publishing a National Annexfor each code. This module is
based on the UK National Annexes. (National Annexes are unique features based on
each country determined parameters and non-contradictory complementary
information. Malaysia for instance has annex on small beams and columns for
domestic construction, creep and shrinkage of concrete, durability aspects and band
beams constructions).
 
• Tables 1.1 and 1.2 list a selection of these codes and standards. In relation to
structural design, the codes and standards are in two groups:
a) Those relating to materials and components
b) Those relating to loading and to the design of structures.
1.10 DESIGN WORKING LIFE
• BS EN 1990, Eurocode - Basis of structural design, (Eurocode 0) gives
indicative design working lives for design purposes for various types of
structures, as shown in Table 1.3.

**This module is only concern on the design of class 4 structures only.

 1.11 LIMIT STATE
• Both BS8110 and EC2 are
based on ultimate limit state.
The purpose of limit state design
is to achieve acceptable
probabilities that a structure will
not become unfit for its intended
use - meaning that it will not
reach a limit state.
• Therefore, in any way a
structure become unfit for use
will constitute a limit state. The
design aim is to avoid any such
condition being reached during
the expected life of the structure.
• The two principal types of limit
state are as shown in Figure
1.12.
a) Ultimate limit state
Ultimate limit state is associated with collapse or other forms of
structural damage likely to endanger life. The structure must be
able to withstand, with adequate factor of safety against collapse,
the loads for which it is designed to ensure the safety of the
occupant and the building itself. Examples of ultimate limit state are
overturning, buckling, collapse or internal explosion.

b) Serviceability limit state

Serviceability limit states are associated with poor performance of
the structure which, even though not life-threatening, must be
avoided. Conditions whereby a structure is not fit to be used or the
occupant feels unsafe living in the structure. Generally,
serviceability limit states are:
• Deflection – the appearance of any part of a structure must not be adversely
affected by deflections.

• Cracking – local damage due to cracking and spalling must not affect the
appearance, efficiency and durability of the structure.

• Durability – must be considered in terms of the proposed life of the structure and
its conditions of exposure.

• Excessive vibration – may cause discomfort.

• Fatigue - must be considered if cyclic loading is likely.

• Fire resistance – must be considered in terms of resistance to collapse.

1.12 LOADING / ACTIONS
• Generally, loads or actions cannot be predicted accurately and it is uneconomical
to design using the largest load that may be encountered by the structure.
Therefore, in design practice characteristic load/actions is used with low
probabilities that it will be exceeded during the lifetime of the structure.

• Actions is the Eurocode terminology for loads and imposed deformations. EC2
defines an action as a force or load applied to a structure. Actions are
categorized into permanent (Gk) actions and variable(Qk) actions.

• Permanent(Gk) actions is the fix load and usually unchanged in its location,
example self-weight of structures, finishes (screed, tiles etc), partition walls
(metal or brick), fittings, ceiling and fixed equipment such as water pipes and air-
condition ducts. Standard characteristic loadings can be found in BS EN 1991,
Eurocode 1 – Actions on Structures. Table 1.4 shows some typical values of
permanent loading.
• Variable(Qk) actions is any load that is temporarily on a structure. There
are 2 types of variable action namely imposed and wind load.

i) Imposed load: Any gravity load, e.g people, furniture etc. Example
of selected imposed loads are shown in Table 1.5.

ii) Wind load: Reference on wind load can be obtained in Part 4 of EC

2. Wind load depends on wind speed, building height and size,
etc. Reference wind velocity for a locality is defined as mean wind
velocity at 10 m above farmland averaged over a period of 10
minutes with a return period of 50 years. EC2 requires that effects
of horizontal loads due to geometric imperfections are considered
in addition to effects of horizontal loads due to wind.
EXAMPLE 1.1
The reinforced concrete floor beam as
shown in Figure 1.13 is used to support
a concrete slab of 6 m width and having
a thickness of 100 mm. The slab also
carries a 13 mm thick plaster ceiling for
the floor below. The beam also carries a
brick wall of width 100 mm and 1.2 m in
height. Determine the load on the beam
as kN per metre length of the beam. The
density of concrete = 25 kN/m3.

• Density of brick = 22 kN/m3

• Area load of 12 mm plaster = 0.21 kN/m2.
Solution:

Using the data given, the self-weight:

Component Calculation Load

Concrete slab 25kN/m3 x 0.1 m x 6 m 15 kN/m

Plaster ceiling 0.21 kN/m2 x 6 m 1.26 kN/m

Brick wall 22 kN/m3 x 0.1 m x 1.2 m 2.64 kN/m

Total load on the beam 18.9 kN/m

1.13 DESIGN LOAD
Design loads for Ultimate limit State are obtained by multiplying
characteristic loads by appropriate partial safety factor as shown in Table
1.6.

The terms favourable and unfavourable refer to the effect of the action(s) on the
design situation under consideration. For example, if a beam, continuous over
several spans, is to be designed for the largest sagging bending moment it will have
to sustain any action that has the effect of increasing the bending moment will be
considered unfavourable whilst any action that reduces the bending moment will be
considered to be favourable.
Partial safety factors for actions(γf) is applied due to:

1) Design assumptions and inaccuracy of calculation

2) Possible unusual increases in the magnitude of the actions
3) Unforeseen stress redistributions
4) Constructional inaccuracies

For simply supported beams, the partial safety factors for permanent,γG and
variable actions, γQ will normally be 1.35 and 1.5 respectively.

For checking ultimate limit states (ULS) of bending, shear and compression:

γGGk + γQQk = 1.35Gk + 1.50Qk

For checking serviceability limit states (SLS) of cracking and deflection:

γGGk + γQQk = 1.00Gk + 1.00Qk

 1.14 PLACING OF LOADING FOR
ANALYSIS
In determining the maximum moment for simply supported beam the load is placed
as shown Figure 1.14.

For continuous beams, clause 2.5.1.2 of EC2 recommends that the following
load cases will generally be sufficient:
1. Alternate spans carrying maximum loads with the others carrying minimum
load.
2. Any two adjacent spans carrying maximum load with the reminder carrying
minimum load.
Elastic analysis such moment distribution method can be used to determine the
bending moment of the continuous beam above and the largest moment of the
two cases is used for design purpose.
EXAMPLE 2
A rectangular beam of size 200 X 500 mm and length 5 m is simply
supported. If the beam is to carry a characteristic live load of 5 kN/m
calculate the ultimate design load in kN/m to be carried by the beam. The
weight of concrete = 24 kN/m3.

Solution:

Dead weight of beam (permanent load), gk

= 0.2 m x 0.5 m x 24 kN/m3 = 2.4 kN/m

Live load, qk = 5 kN/m

Design load = 1.35gk + 1.5qk

= (1.35 x 2.4 kN/m)+ (1.5 x 5 kN/m) = 10.74 kN/m
EXAMPLE 3
Determine the design value for load for a cable which support a total
characteristic permanent load of 3.0 kN and a characteristic variable
load of 2.0 kN as in Figure 1.16.

Solution:
Design load = (γG X permanent load)+
(γQ X variable load)

= (1.35 X 3.0 kN) + (1.5 X 2.0 kN)

= 7.05 kN
EXAMPLE 4
Figure 1.17 shows a simply supported rectangular beam of 6 m span
carries characteristic dead (excluding self-weight of beam), gk, and
imposed load, qk, loads of 8 kN/m and 6 kN/m respectively. The beam
dimensions are breadth, b, 275 mm and height, h, 450 mm. Calculate:

(i) Design load

(ii) Reaction at the supports.

(iii) Maximum design bending moment at centre of span.

Solution:

Self-weight of the beam = 25 kN/m3 x 0.275 m x 0.45 m = 3.1 kN/m

Total characteristic dead load = 8 kN/m + 3.1 kN/m = 11.1 kN/m

(i) Design load = (1.35 x 11.1 kN/m) + (1.5 x 6 kN/m) = 24.0 kN/m
(ii) Reaction at support, Ra = Rb = 24 kN/m x (6m /2) = 72 kN
(iii) The maximum design bending moment occurs at the centre of the
simply supported beam.
Mmax = wL2/8 = 24 kN/m x (6m)2/8 =108 kNm
1.15 MATERIAL STRENGTH
The strength of materials upon which a design is based are normally those
strengths below which results are unlikely to fail. These are called
‘characteristic’ action. For a large sample of a material tested, the distribution
of strength will approximately ‘normal” so that a frequency distribution curve
would be of the form as shown in Figure 1.18.
 From the graph, the characteristic action is defined:
Characteristic actions = mean action ± 1.64 standard deviations
The mean, and standard deviation, σ are given by:

These characteristic values represent the limits within which at least 90% of
values lie in practice. It is to be expected that not more than 5% will exceed the
upper limit and not more than 5% will fall below the lower limit.
EXAMPLE 5
• A characteristic cube strength of 35 N/mm2 is to
be obtained from a concrete batching plant. The
standard deviation of 5 N/mm2 is expected.
Determine the required mean strength.

Solution:

• The required mean strength = 35N/mm2 + (1.64 x

5N/mm2) = 43.2 N/mm2.
1.16 CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH OF
CONCRETE (fCK)

The concrete strength is

assessed by testing the
crushing strength of cylinders
or cube of concrete made
from the mix in a crushing
machine as shown Figure
1.19. These are usually
cured, and tested after 28
days according to standard
procedures.
• Concrete of a given strength is identified by its class – a Class
25/30 concrete has a characteristic cylinder strength (fck) of 25
N/mm2 and cube strength of 30 N/mm2. Table 1.7 shows a list of
commonly used classes.
• (If a cube and a cylinder are made of the same concrete then the
cube will achieve a higher strength because the steel platens of
the compression testing machine exert a greater lateral restraint
on a stocky cube than they do on a more slender cylinder)
1.17 CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH OF
STEEL(fyK)
Table 1.8 shows the various characteristic strength of steel bars use in the
construction industry.

Grade 250 bars are hot-rolled mild steel bars which usually has smooth surface so that the
bond with the concrete is by adhesion. Can be readily bent and use as links in beams and
columns. (In European Union and UK plain bars are no longer available). Grade 460 & 500
(EC2) are high yield bars with ribbed surface as shown in Figure 1.20.
Deformed bars have a mechanical bond with the concrete, thus enhancing ultimate
bond stresses. The cross-sectional areas of various sizes of bars and the cross-
sectional area per unit width of slab are in Table 1.9(a) and (b).
1.18 DESIGN STRENGTH OF MATERIAL
In order to take account of the difference between actual and laboratory values,
local weaknesses and inaccuracies in the assessment of the resistance of
sections, the characteristic strengths of material, fk are divided by an appropriate
partial safety factor for material, Ỿm.
Design strength = fk/ Ỿm

Table 1.10 shows the values of Ỿm for concrete and steel as recommended by EC2.Partial
safety factor for material(Ỿm) is applied due to:
a) The actual strength in a member will differ from that measured in a carefully
prepared test specimen and it is particularly true for concrete for placing,
compaction and curing are so important to the strength. Steel, on the other hand, is
relatively consistent material requiring a small factor of safety.
b) The severity of the limit state being considered. Thus, higher values are taken for
the ultimate limit state than serviceability limit state.
1.19 STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIP FOR
CONCRETE AND STEEL
When a member of a structure is loaded it will deform and create stress and strain
inside the member. Understanding the stress and strain of concrete and steel
reinforcement is important to enable us to understand the analysis and design of a
reinforced concrete member.
a) Concrete
Short-term stress-strain curves for concrete and steel can be found in EC2. Figure
1.21 is an idealised stress versus strain form for concrete which can be used in the
analysis of member sections.
fcd is the ultimate design stress and is given by:

(α = 0.85 is to allow for the difference between the bending strength and the cylinder crushing
strength. γc = 1.5 is the partial safety factor for strength of concrete)
Referring to Figure 1.21 and according to EC2, the ultimate strain of concrete before failure
occurs is given as follow:
εcu2 = 0.0035 is the ultimate strain for classes of concrete
≤C50/60
εc2 = 0.002
1.19 STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIP FOR
CONCRETE AND STEEL

b) Steel

The short-term design stress-strain curve for reinforcement as proposed by

EC2 is as shown in Figure 1.22.
The behaviour of steel is the same in tension and compression being linear in the elastic range
up to the design yield stress fyk/γs where fyk is the characteristic yield stress and γ sis the partial
factor of safety.
Design steel stress is fyk/γs
= fyk/1.15
= 0.87fyk
In the elastic range, stress = elastic modulus X strain
Design yield strain εy = design stress/elastic modulus
= (fyk/γs) /Es
For fyk = 500 N/mm2
εy = (500N/mm2/1.15)/(200 X 103)
= 0.00217
For fyk = 460 N/mm2
= (460N/mm2/1.15) / 200 X 103
= 0.002
1.20 THE BEHAVIOUR OF BEAM IN FLEXURE

When a reinforced concrete beam is loaded it will bend as shown in Figure 1.23.
The intensity of deflection depends on the bending moment diagram. The bending
of the beam causes one face of beam to shorten due to the compressive force and
the other face lengthen due to the tensile force. The tensile region will experience
cracks since concrete is weak in tension. Reinforcement has to be provided in this
region to overcome the problem.
In the case of cantilever beam, the tension region is on the upper side of the beam
and the largest bending moment occurs at the connection between the beam and
the support. Thus, tension reinforcement has to be provided at the top of the beam
and extended into the wall to provide anchorage as shown in Figure 1.24.
For a continuous beam as shown in Figure 1.24, the tension reinforcement are
provided at the upper portion over the support and at the centre region where the
tensile force is greatest.
Problems
The diagram below shows a bending moment diagram of a continuous beam.
Sketch the position of tension steel on the beam.
Thank You