CH 02

CHAPTER TWO
KINEMATICS OF SERIAL ROBOTS:

POSITION ANALYSIS
Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

Applications, Third Edition. Saeed B. Niku. ©
2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by
Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control, Applications, Third Edition.
Saeed B. Niku.
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
This solution manual may not be copied, posted, made available to students,
placed on any outlet, any other electronic media system, and the Internet
without prior expressed consent of the copyright owner.
This material may not be used except in conjunction with the “Introduction to
Robotics: Analysis, Control, Applications”

 Manipulator-type robots are multi degree-of-
freedom (DOF), three dimensional, open-loop,
chain mechanisms
F B
B
F A
C
A
O1 O2 O1
The difference between open loop and closed-loop mechanisms

A parallel mechanism

Matrix representations
 We use matrices to represent:
 Points (in space)
 Lines or vectors
 Objects
 Frames
 Movements (called transformations)

Representation of a point in space
 A point P in space can be represented by its three

coordinates relative to a reference frame as:
P  ax i  by j  cz k
P
cz
by ax
x y

Representation of a vector in space
A vector can be represented by three coordinates

of its tail and its head. If the vector starts at
point A and ends at point B, then it can be
represented by:
PAB  ( Bx  Ax )i  ( B y  Ay ) j  ( Bz  Az )k
z
 ax 
P
P   by 
 cz  cz
by ax
x y

Application of a scale factor
 Makes the matrix 4 by 1

 Allows for introducing directional cosines
 When w  1 , vector is actual length
 When w  0 , it represents an axis with its
directional cosines
 Px 
P  Py
Px Pz
P   y where a x  , by  , cz 
 Pz  w w w
 
w
The n-o-a frame designation
 Approach, Orientation, Normal directions
n o
x y

Representation of a frame relative to a fixed
reference frame
z
 nx ox ax px 
n oy ay p y 
F y p
 nz oz az pz 
 
0 0 0 1
x y

Representation of a rigid body (object)
 nx ox ax px 
n z
oy ay p y 
Fobject  y
 nz oz az pz  a
  o
0 0 0 1
p
n
x y

Frame representation requirements
 The three unit vectors n, o, a are mutually perpendicular
 Each unit vector’s length, represented by its directional cosines, must be equal to 1
 These constraints translate into the following six constraint equations:
 (the dot-product of n and o vectors must be zero)
 ngo  0(the magnitude of the length of the vector must be 1)


n ga and0
ago  0
n 1
o 1 a 1
 The same can be achieved by:
no  a

Homogeneous transformation matrices
 4 by 4 matrices:
 Can be pre- or post-multiplied

 Easy to find inverse of the matrix
 Represents both orientation and position information, including
directional axes
 nx ox ax px 
n oy ay p y 
F  y
 nz oz az pz 
 
0 0 0 1

Representation of transformations
A transformation may be in one of the following forms:
 A pure translation
 A pure rotation about an axis
 A combination of translations and/or rotations

Representation of a pure translation
Fnew = Trans (dx ,dy ,dz )  Fold
1 0 0 d x   nx ox ax px   nx ox ax px  d x 
0 1 0 d y   n y oy ay p y   ny oy ay py  d y 
Fnew   
0 0 1 d z   nz  oz az pz   nz oz az pz  d z 
     
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1  0 0 0 1 
a a
d
p o o
n n
x y
Representation of a pure rotation about an axis
px  pn
z
p y  l1  l2  po cos   pa sin 
pz  l3  l4  po sin   pa cos  a 
p
po
l3 pa o
pz
l4 po
pa 
y
 px  1 0 0   pn  l1
l2
 p    0 cos   sin    po 
 y  py
 pz   0 sin  cos    pa 
pxyz  Rot ( x,  )  pnoa

Rotation matrices
1 0 0 
Rot ( x,  )  0 C  S 
0 S C 
 C 0 S 
Rot ( y , )   0 1 0 
  S 0 C 
C  S 0
Rot ( z ,  )   S C 0 
 0 0 1 

Representation of combined transformations
 Example:
1. Rotation of  degrees about the x-axis,
2. Followed by a translation of [l1,l2,l3] (relative to the x-,
y-, and z-axes respectively),
3. Followed by a rotation of  degrees about the y-axis.
 Pre-multiply by each matrix:
p1, xyz =Rot ( x,  )  pnoa
p2, xyz  Trans (l1 , l2 , l3 )  p1, xyz  Trans (l1 , l 2 , l3 )  Rot ( x,  )  p noa
pxyz  p3, xyz  Rot ( y,  )  p2, xyz  Rot ( y,  )  Trans (l1, l2 , l3 )  Rot ( x,  )  pnoa
Transformations relative to the current rotating
frame
 In this case, matrices representing each transformation are

post-multiplied.
 If transformations are relative to both the Universe frame
and the current frame, each matrix is accordingly
multiplied, either pre- or post-.

Relationship between frames
U
TE  U TR RTH HTE  U TP PTE
R U 1 U P H 1
TH  TR TP TE TE
R P
E

Inverse of matrices
 The following steps must be taken to calculate the

inverse of a square matrix:
 Calculate the determinant of the matrix.
 Transpose the matrix.
 Replace each element of the transposed matrix by its
own minor (adjoint matrix).
 Divide the converted matrix by the determinant.

Inverse of rotation matrices
 The inverse of a rotation matrix is its transpose

because rotation matrices are “unitary”.
R 1  R T

Inverse of transformation matrices
 The inverse of a transformation (or a frame) matrix is the

following:
 nx ox ax px   nx ny nz p  n 
n oy ay p y  o oy oz p  o 
T  y and T 1   x
 nz oz az pz  a x ay az p  a 
   
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 
1. Transpose the rotation portion of the matrix.

2. Take the negative of the dot-product of the p and n, p and o, and p
and a vectors.
The scale factors remain the same.
Forward and inverse kinematic equations
 Forward kinematics includes substituting the

known joint values into the equations to find the
location and orientation
 Inverse kinematics includes finding an equation
that results in joint values if the desired position
and orientation are specified.

Forward and inverse kinematics for positioning
 Four possibilities are common:

a. Cartesian (gantry, rectangular) coordinates
b. Cylindrical coordinates
c. Spherical coordinates
d. Articulated (anthropomorphic or all-revolute)
coordinates

Cartesian coordinates
 Three linear motions.

1 0 0 px 
0 1 0 p y 
R
Tp  Tcart ( px , p y , p z )  
0 0 1 pz 
 
0 0 0 1
z a
o
n
p pz
y
px
py
Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control, x

Cylindrical coordinates
 Two linear and one revolute joints

R
Tp  Tcyl (r ,  , l )  Trans (0, 0, l ) Rot ( z ,  )Trans (r , 0, 0)
C  S 0 rC 
 S C 0 rS 
R
Tp  Tcyl (r ,  , l )  
 0 0 1 l  z a
  o
 0 0 0 1  n
p
l
y

r
x
Inverse solution
 Use the position equations to find the joint values.

 The application of ATAN2 function for correct
determination of angles.
rC  Px 
    ATAN 2  Py , Px 
rS  Py 
l  Pz

Spherical coordinates
 Two revolute and one linear joints

R
TP  Tsph (r ,  ,  )  Rot ( z ,  ) Rot ( y,  )Trans (0, 0, r )
C  C S S  C rS  C 
 C  S C S  S rS  S  
R
TP  Tsph (r ,  ,  )   
 S  0 C rC  
 
 0 0 0 1 
z
a
o
r n
 p y

Applications, Third Edition. Saeed B. Niku. © x
Inverse solution
 Use the position equations to determine the joint
values.
 Check your answers for correct values.

Articulated coordinates
 We will study later with the Denavit–Hartenberg

methodology
z
1
3
2
y
n a
x
Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control, Applications, Third Edition. Saeed B. Niku.
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Forward and inverse kinematics for orientation
 Three possibilities are common:

a. Roll-pitch-yaw (RPY) angles
b. Euler angles
c. Articulated coordinates

RPY angles
Rotation of a about the a  axis (z -axis of the moving frame) called Roll,

Rotation of o about the o  axis (y -axis of the moving frame) called Pitch,
Rotation of n about the n  axis (x-axis of the moving frame) called Yaw.
z z z
a
a a
o a o
o o
n
n
n n
x y x y x y
RPY(a , o , n )  Rot (a, a ) Rot (o, o ) Rot ( n, n ) 

Ca Co Ca So Sn  Sa Cn Ca So Cn  Sa Sn 0
 S C Sa So Sn  Ca Cn Sa SoCn  Ca Sn 0 
 a o
  So Co Sn CoCn 0
 
 0 0 0 1

Inverse solution
 Use:
a  ATAN 2(n y , nx ) and a  ATAN 2(ny , nx )
o  ATAN 2[nz , (nxCa  n y Sa )]
n  ATAN 2[(a y Ca  ax Sa ), (o y Ca  ox Sa )]

Euler angles
 Rotation of  about the a  axis (z axis of the moving frame) followed by,
Rotation of  about the o  axis (y axis of the moving frame) followed by,
Rotation of  about the a  axis (z axis of the moving frame).
Z Z Z
a
a a
  o
o o 
n n
n
X Y X Y X Y
Euler( ,  , )  Rot (a,  ) Rot (o,  ), Rot (a, ) 

C C C  S S C C S  S C C S 0
 S C C  C S  S C S  C C S S 0 

  S C S S C 0
 
 0 0 0 1
Inverse solution
 Use:
  ATAN 2(a y , ax ) or   ATAN 2(a y , a x )
  ATAN 2[(nx S  n y C ), (ox S  o y C )]
  ATAN 2[(ax C  a y S ), az )]

Articulated angles
 We will study later with the Denavit–Hartenberg

methodology

Combination of different formats
 Multiply the transformations as appropriate:
R
TH  Tcart ( px , p y , pz )  RPY(a , o , n )
R
TH  Tsph (r ,  ,  )  Euler( , , )

Denavit-Hartenberg (DH) representation of
forward kinematic equations of robots
 May be used for any configuration, whether
specific coordinates or not.
 Can include joint offset, twist angles, multi-
variable joints, and so on.
 Very common.
 Many other equations are based on this
methodology

D-H representation
Joint n Joint n+1 Joint n+2
zn+1
zn-1 zn Parallel to zn
 n 1
an+1
xn+1
n  n 1
 n 2
Link n
Link
n+1
dn+1
an zn
yn y
x
xn
n
Parallel to zn-1
(a)
D-H representation
 z-axes always along the joint motion.

 θ represents joint rotation.
 d is joint linear displacement or distance between
common normals.
 α is the twist angle between z-axes.
 a is the length of the common normal.

D-H representation: what to do
 Assign z-axes to each joint along linear motion or

revolute axis.
 Assign x-axes along the common normal between
successive z-axes.
 No need for y-axes.
 If z-axes coincide, x-axis is perpendicular to both.
 If z-axes are parallel, x-axes can be anywhere.

D-H local transformations
 Four transformations are necessary to go from one
frame to the next:
zn zn+1 zn zn+1 zn zn+1
an+1 an+1 xn
xn+1 xn+1 xn+1
dn+1 an+1
dn+1
 n 1
xn
xn (b) (c) (d)
zn
zn+1 zn zn+1 zn
 n 1 zn+1
xn+1 xn xn+1 xn xn+1 xn
(e) (f) (g)

D-H local transformations
 Rotate about the zn-axis an angle of .n This
1 will make xn and xn+1
parallel to each other. This is true because an and an+1 are both
perpendicular to zn, and rotating zn an angle of will
n 1 make them
parallel (coplanar).
 Translate along the zn-axis a distance of dn+1 to make xn and xn+1 colinear.
Since xn and xn+1 were already parallel and normal to zn, moving along zn
will lay them over each other.
 Translate along the (already rotated) xn-axis a distance of an+1 to bring the
origins of xn and xn+1 together. At this point, the origins of the two
reference frames will be at the same location.
 Rotate zn-axis about xn+1-axis an angle of ton 1align z -axis with z -
n n+1
axis. At this point, frames n and n+1 will be exactly the same, and we
have transformed from one to the next.

D-H representation
 A transformation matrix can be formed by:
n
Tn 1  An 1  Rot ( z , n 1 )  Trans (0, 0, d n 1 )  Trans (an 1 , 0, 0)  Rot ( x,  n 1 )
C n 1  S n 1 0 0  1 0 0 0  1 0 0 a n 1   1 0 0 0
 S C n 1 0 0 0 1 0 0  0 1 0 0  0 C n 1  S n 1 0
  n 1    
 0 0 1 0  0 0 1 d n 1   0 0 1 0  0 S n 1 C n 1 0
       
 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1  0 0 0 1  0 0 0 1

D-H representation
 An A-matrix is:
C n 1  S n 1C n 1 S n1S n1 an 1C n 1 
 S C n 1C n 1 C n 1S n 1 an 1S n 1 
An 1   n 1
 0 S n 1 C n 1 d n 1 
 
 0 0 0 1 

Total transformation
 The total transformation between the base and the end of the
robot is:
R R 1 2 n 1
TH  T1 T2 T3 ... Tn  A1 A2 A3 ... An

D-H representation
 A parameters table may look like:

D-H representation
 Example: A simple 6-axis robot
z z0
x2
3
z2
y a2
a3 z4
2
a4
x x1 4 5 x5
x0
z1 1 x3
6 x4
z3
z5
x6
z6

Parameters table

Inverse kinematic equations
 Find a set of equations that allow determination of
joint values from desired position and orientation
information.
 Each robot has a different solution.
 It may be necessary to use different approaches
for each robot.
 This usually requires pre-multiplication of
transformation matrices by inverse of individual A
matrices, squaring of terms, divisions, and so on.
 The total transformation is:
R
TH  A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6
C1 (C234C5C6  S234 S6 ) C1 ( C234C5 S6  S234C6 ) C1 (C234 S5 )  S1C5 C1 (C234a4  C23a3  C2a2 ) 
S S C  S1S5 S6 
 1 5 6 
 
 
S ( C C C  S S ) S ( C C S  S C ) S ( C S )  C C S (C a  C a  C a )
  1 234 5 6 234 6 1 234 5 6 234 6 1 234 5 1 5 1 234 4 23 3 2 2 
 C1S5C6 C1S5 S6 
 
 
 S C C C S  S234C5 S6  C234C6 S234 S5 S234 a4  S23a3  S2 a2 
234 5 6 234 6
 
 0 0 0 1 

 For the shown example, the following may be
found:
 py 
1
1  tan   and 1  1  180
 px 
( px C1  p y S1  C234 a4 ) 2  ( pz  S 234 a4 ) 2  a22  a32
C3 
2a2 a3
S3 1
where S3   1  C 2 and  3  tan
3
C3

Inverse kinematic equations: cont.
1 az 
 234  tan   and  234   234  180
Ca S a
 1 x 1 y 
(C3a3  a2 )( pz  S 234 a4 )  S3a3 ( pxC1  p y S1  C234a4 )

 2  tan 1
(C3 a3  a2 )( pxC1  p y S1  C234 a4 )  S3a3 ( p z  S 234a4 )
 4   234   2   3
C234 (C1ax  S1a y )  S234 az
 5  tan 1
S1ax  C1a y
1
 S 234 (C1nx  S1n y )  C234 nz
 6  tan
 S234 (C1ox  S1o y )  C234 oz
Inverse kinematic programming of robots
B
ate p oints
A m edi
inter

Dual-arm cooperating robots
 Robots that work together or robots with two

arms.
 Courtesy of Yaskawa Electric.

 Loop equations:
H1
P2
H2
P1
R1
R2
U
TR1 R1TH 1 H 1TP1 P1TP 2  U TR 2 R 2TH 2 H 2TP 2
R2 R2
TH 2  TU U TR1 R1TH 1 H 1TP1 P1TP 2 P 2TH 2
Degeneracy
 When a degree of freedom is lost.
6
5
4
z
y
x
2
1

Dexterity
 When a position within the work envelope can be

specified, but orientation is limited. This usually
happens near the boundaries or reach.

The fundamental problem with the Denavit-
Hartenberg representation
 No transformation along the y-axis is allowed.

 Manufacturing errors in joints are usually in this
direction.


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CH 02

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CHAPTER TWO

KINEMATICS OF SERIAL ROBOTS:

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

The difference between open loop and closed-loop mechanisms

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 A point P in space can be represented by its three

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

A vector can be represented by three coordinates

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 Makes the matrix 4 by 1

 Approach, Orientation, Normal directions

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 ngo  0(the magnitude of the length of the vector must be 1)

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 Can be pre- or post-multiplied

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

Fnew = Trans (dx ,dy ,dz )  Fold

pxyz  Rot ( x,  )  pnoa

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 In this case, matrices representing each transformation are

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 The following steps must be taken to calculate the

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 The inverse of a rotation matrix is its transpose

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 The inverse of a transformation (or a frame) matrix is the

1. Transpose the rotation portion of the matrix.

 Forward kinematics includes substituting the

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 Four possibilities are common:

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 Three linear motions.

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control, x

 Two linear and one revolute joints

 Use the position equations to find the joint values.

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 Two revolute and one linear joints

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 We will study later with the Denavit–Hartenberg

 Three possibilities are common:

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

RPY(a , o , n )  Rot (a, a ) Rot (o, o ) Rot ( n, n ) 

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

o  ATAN 2[nz , (nxCa  n y Sa )]

n  ATAN 2[(a y Ca  ax Sa ), (o y Ca  ox Sa )]

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

Euler( ,  , )  Rot (a,  ) Rot (o,  ), Rot (a, ) 

  ATAN 2[(nx S  n y C ), (ox S  o y C )]

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 We will study later with the Denavit–Hartenberg

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 z-axes always along the joint motion.

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,