CH 08

CHAPTER EIGHT
MOTION CONTROL SYSTEMS
Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

Applications, Third Edition. Saeed B. Niku. ©
2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by
Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control, Applications, Third Edition.
Saeed B. Niku.
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
This solution manual may not be copied, posted, made available to students,
placed on any outlet, any other electronic media system, and the Internet
without prior expressed consent of the copyright owner.
This material may not be used except in conjunction with the “Introduction to
Robotics: Analysis, Control, Applications”

Introduction
 What is a control system

 What a control system does

Basic Components and Terminology
 A device, machine, or process (called a plant) that is
controlled.
 The plant creates an effect—an output.
 Sensors, to measure the output of the plant.
 The desired input.
 The nature of different controllers.
Error signal
+ Output
Input reference  Controller Plant
-
Sensor
Feedback signal
Basic Components and Terminology: Cont.
 Open-loop controller
 Closed-loop controller
 Error signal
 Summing junction
 System’s dynamics

Block Diagram
 Pictorial representation of a system

 Input-to-output relationship
Input Output
G

System Dynamics
 The behavior of a system is a function of:

 Physical characteristics
 External influences and choices
 It is usually an equation (differential equation).
 Similarity of Mechanical, electrical, chemical, and other
systems.

Equivalent Systems
Mechanical Systems Electrical Systems
Force F or torque T Voltage e
Mass m or moment of inertia J Inductance L
Viscous coefficient of friction b Resistance R
Spring constant k Reciprocal of capacitance 1/C
Displacement x or angular displacement  Charge q
Velocity x or angular velocity  Current i
Mechanical Systems Electrical Systems

Force F or torque T Current i
Mass m or moment of inertia J Capacitance C
Viscous coefficient of friction b Reciprocal of resistance 1/R
Spring constant k Reciprocal of inductance 1/L
Displacement x or angular displacement  Magnetic flux linkage
Velocity x or angular velocity  Voltage e
Laplace Transform
 Replaces time domain f(t) to Laplace domain F(s).

 Converts a differential equation to an algebraic equation
 Laplace transform is:
 
L [ f (t )]  F ( s )   e dt[ f (t )]   f (t )e  st dt
 st
0 0
where
s    j

Laplace Transform: Cont.
 Conversion equations may be derived mathematically.

 In most cases, common transforms are tabulated in
references and can be used directly.
 The following table is typical.
 Note how transforms of derivatives are formed by
successively multiplications by an s.

Unit impulse 1
A
Step Au (t )
s
A
Ramp At
s2
tn 1
n! s n 1
1
e  t
s 

sin t
s2   2
s
cos t
s2   2
 t 
e sin t
   2
2
s  
s 
e  t cos t
s   
2
 2
kf (t ) kF ( s)
f1 (t )  f 2 (t ) F1 ( s)  F2 ( s )
f (t ) sF ( s )  f (0)
f (t ) s 2 F ( s)  sf (0)  f (0)
f n (t ) s n F ( s)  s n 1 f (0)    f n 1 (0)
Final value Theorem
 Allows calculation of the final value or steady-state value

of a time-domain function at t   .
 It can be calculated from:
lim f (t )  [ sF ( s )]s 0
t 

Inverse Laplace Transform
 The process of converting an s-domain equation into t-

domain.
 Two methods are used:
 Application of tables such as discussed earlier,
 Partial fraction expansion method
 The equation is divided into simple terms that can be
inversed easily.
F ( s )  F1 ( s )  F2 ( s )    Fn ( s )
L 1 F ( s)  L 1 F1 ( s)  L 1 F2 ( s )    L 1Fn ( s )
 f1 (t )  f 2 (t )    f n (t )
Inverse Laplace Transform: Cont.
 If F ( s)  N ( s ) m D( s ) n
 where N(s) and D(s) are the numerator and denominator,
we can break the equation into the following form where z
and p values are zeros and poles:
N ( s ) m K ( s  z1 )( s  z2 ) ( s  z m )
F (s)  
D( s )n ( s  p1 )( s  p2 ) ( s  pn )
 Therefore, the inverse Laplace transform can be found.

Partial Fraction Expansion: Distinct Poles
 If:
N (s)m a1 a2 an
F ( s)     
D ( s) n ( s  p1 ) ( s  p2 ) ( s  pn )
 where:
 N ( s) 
ak  ( s  pk ) 
 D ( s )  s  pk
 and:
f (t )  L 1  F ( s)   a1e  p1t  a2e  p2t    an e  pnt

Partial Fraction Expansion: Repeated poles
 If:
N (s)m bq bq 1 b1
F ( s)   q
 q 1
   
D( s) n ( s  p ) (s  p) (s  p)
a1 a2 an
  
( s  p1 ) ( s  p2 ) ( s  pn )
 where:
d 
bq  ( s  p ) q F ( s )  and bq 1   ( s  p )q F ( s )  
s  p
 ds s  p
 1 dk q 
bq  k  
k 
( s  p ) F ( s ) 

 k ! ds s  p
 and:
 bq t q 1 bq 1t q 2 b2t   pt
f (t )       b1  e  a1e  p1t  a2 e  p2t    an e  pnt
  q  1!  q  2 ! 1! 
Partial Fraction Expansion: Complex conjugate
poles
 If:
b  b 2  4ac
f ( s )  as 2  bs  c  0  p1 , p2 
2a
 Then:
N ( s) m c1 c2 a1 an
F ( s)      
D ( s ) n ( s    j ) ( s    j ) ( s  p1 ) ( s  pn )
 and:
 (  j ) t  (  j ) t  p1t
f (t )  c1e  c2 e  a1e 

Transfer Function
 The equation that represents the ratio of output to input in

a system.
 Across a block or across a complete system.
 R(s), Y(s), G(s), and H(s) represent the input, output, the
system dynamic plus any controller, and feedback
multiplier respectively.
Error signal
R(s) + E(s) Y(s)
 G(s)
-
B(s)
Feedback signal
H(s)
Transfer Function: Cont.
 Open-loop transfer function: The ratio of the feedback

signal to the actuating error signal while the feedback loop
is open, although the sensor still reads the output.
Y ( s)  E ( s)G ( s) and B( s)  Y ( s) H ( s )  E ( s )G ( s ) H ( s )
B ( s ) E ( s )G ( s ) H ( s )
OLTF    G (s ) H (s )
E ( s) E (s)

 Feed-forward transfer function: The ratio of the output

to the actuating error signal
Y (s)
FFTF   G ( s)
E (s)

 Closed-loop transfer function is the ratio of output to input
for the system.
Y (s)  G ( s) E ( s)
E ( s )  R ( s)  B( s)  R( s )  Y ( s ) H (s )
 Eliminating E(s) we get:
Y ( s)  G ( s)  R ( s)  Y (s ) H ( s ) 
Y ( s) 1  G ( s) H ( s )   G ( s ) R ( s )
Error signal
R(s) + E(s) Y(s)
 G(s)
-
B(s)
Feedback signal
H(s)
 Or:
Y (s) G ( s)
CLTF  
R(s) 1  G (s) H (s)
NG (s) N H ( s)
H (s) 
 And if G ( s )  D ( s ) DH ( s )
G
 Then:
G ( s) N G DH
CLTF  
1  G ( s ) H ( s ) N G N H  DG DH

Block Diagram Algebra
 The following rules apply in simplifying block diagrams:

 The products of the feed-forward transfer functions
must remain the same, and
 The products of the transfer functions around a loop
must remain the same.

Block Diagram Algebra: Cont.
A B A B
+- G1 G1/(1+G1G2)
=
G2
A A-B A-B-C A A-B-C

+- +- = +-
B C B+C
A AG1G2 A AG1G2
G1 G2 = G1 G2
A A(G1-G2) A A(G1-G2)
G1 +- G1-G2
=
G2

Block Diagram Algebra: Cont.
A AG AG-B A A-(B/G) AG-B
G +- = +- G
B B/G B
1/G
A A-B AG-BG A AG-BG

+- G = G +-
B B G
A B B
+- G1 A 1/G2 +- G1G2
=
G2
A A(G1-G2)
G1 +- A AG1-AG2
= G2 1/G2 G1 +-
G2

Characteristics of First-Order Transfer Functions
 First-order systems are represented in the following

standard forms:
K ss K ss  K ss a
G ( s)   
 s  1 s  (1  ) s  a
 where Kss is the steady-state gain and  is the time constant.
 The denominator of this equation is a first-order polynomial with
its root (called a pole) at s   a.
 The response of such a system to a step function Pu(t) is:
K ss a P PK ss PK ss
F (s)    
sa s s sa

Characteristics of First-Order Transfer Functions:
Cont.
 The time response of the system is:

f (t )  PK ss 1  e  at  u (t )
x(t)
100% Xss=PKss
98%
90%
63%
Rise time
10%
0 t

Cont.
The following definitions characterize the response:
 The final value is PKss.
  is the time constant, an indication of how fast the
system responds to the step function.
 a  1  is a pole.
 The location of the pole in a real-imaginary plane relative
to the imaginary axis (y-axis) specifies whether or not the
system is stable and how fast it responds.
 If the pole is to the left of the y-axis (negative), the
response 1  e  at is bounded.
 If it is to the right of the imaginary plane, the response is
1  e at which is not bounded.

Cont.
 The time constant is:
x(t   )  PK ss (1  e   )  PK ss (0.63)  63%( PK ss )
Hence, x(t) reaches 63% of the final value in t   sec.
 Rise time is the time required between 10% and 90% of the final
value or Tr  2.2 .
 Settling time is the time from 0% to 98% rise and is Ts  4
 The slope at t=0 can be found by differentiation:
dx PK ss
 PK ss a 
dt t 0 
 In first-order transfer functions the system responds as soon as
u(t) is applied.

Characteristics of Second-Order Transfer
Functions
2nd-order transfer functions are represented as:
n2
G ( s)  2
s  2n s  n2
The response of such a system to a step function u(t) is:

n2 1
F ( s)  2
 s  2n s  n2  s
The time response of the system may be written as:
nt
  
f (t )  1  e  cos d t  sin d t 
 1  2 
 
1
or f (t )  1  e nt sin d t   
1  2
Functions: Cont.
 These equations have an exponential portion and

sinusoidal portions.
 The response is an oscillatory function influenced by
whether the exponential portion is decaying or growing as
follows:

Functions: Cont.
 If   0 , indicating no damping, the exponential portion is a constant. The

response is a sinusoidal function that oscillates indefinitely.
 If   1 , indicating critical damping, the response is an exponential function
that eventually achieves the steady-state value.

Functions: Cont.
 If the exponential portion grows, the response will grow as well, indicating an
unstable system.
 If the exponential portion decays, indicating less than critical damping, the
oscillations decrease in size until the system stabilizes (Figure 6.15(c) for
  0.2 and (d) for   0.4 ).

Functions: Cont.
The following characterize a 2nd-order response:
 The peak time Tp is the time to the maximum response as
T p   n 1   2
 The rise time Tr is the time to go from 10% of the response to 90%.
 No time constant is defined for a second-order transfer function.
 Settling time Ts is reached when the response does not vary more than 2% or
Ts  4 n
 Percent overshoot (%OS) is the ratio of overshoot to steady-state value
%OS 
F (max)  Fss
100%  e
 1 2  100%
Fss
Functions: Cont.
 A typical 2nd-order response:
1
0.9
0.1
n t
5 10 15
Rise time Tr
Peak time Tp

Characteristic Equation: Pole/Zero Mapping
 Characteristic equation is when the denominator of the

transfer function is set to zero.
 The roots of the characteristic equation are called poles
 The roots of the numerator of the transfer function are
called zeros.
 Pole/zero mapping is the graphical representation of the
locations of the poles and zeros in a real-imaginary plane.
 The loci of the poles and zeros reveal much
information about the system and how it behaves.

 A first-order transfer function has only one pole:

 The reciprocal of the pole location is the time constant.
 As s increases, indicating a smaller time constant, the
response of the system is faster.
 When the pole moves to the right (closer to the origin), the
time constant is larger with a slower response.
 If the pole is on the left side of the imaginary axis, the
system is stable.
 A pole at the origin is a pure integrator.

 For second-order transfer functions, the solution for the

characteristic equation is:
s 2  2n s  n2  0
 2n 
2
2
b  b  4ac 2n   4n2
s 
2a 2
s  n  n  2  1

Four possibilities exist:
   1 , therefore s  n , repeated twice. This means that there will be two poles
at the same location. This system is critically damped.
   1 , therefore  2  1 is positive, resulting in a pair of real and distinct roots
and a system that is overdamped.
   1 , therefore  2  1 is negative. The roots are complex conjugate
pair s  n  n 1   2 j . The system is underdamped.
   0 , therefore s  n j , which is an undamped system with complex conjugate
roots on the imaginary axis.
 The response of the system changes as the poles move in

different directions. These conclusions are based on the
preceding results.
higher faster slower
frequency
s Im
lower les ing
frequency p
 dam  damping
no
g
dam ore
pin
m
 Re
critical
damping
 lines of
constant
damping
Steady-State Error
Steady-state error signal and transfer function for a typical system are:
R(s) +  E(s) Y(s)

G(s)
-
H(s)
E ( s)  R( s)  Y ( s) H ( s)
G(s)  1 
Y ( s)  R( s)  E ( s)    R( s )
1  G (s) H ( s)  1  G ( s) H ( s) 
 1 
Ess  lim s   R(s)
s 0
 1  G (s) H ( s) 

Steady-State Error: Cont.
 Assume the open-loop transfer function G(s)H(s) can be represented as:
K ( a s  1)( b s  1)
G ( s) H (s )  n
s ( 1s  1)( 2 s  1)
 The value of n determines the type of the system and indicates how
many pure integrators are present in the feed-forward path.
 For n = 0, system is type-0, for n = 1, system is type-1, etc.
 Substituting different inputs for R for different system types yields the
steady-state error signal.

For step inputs, we define static position error coefficient as:
K p  lim G ( s) H ( s ) .
s 0
1
 Therefore Ess 
1 K p
 For a type-0 system:
K ( a s  1)( b s  1) 1
G ( s) H ( s)   K p  K and Ess 
( 1s  1)( 2 s  1) 1 K
 For a type-1 or higher systems
K ( a s  1)( b s  1)
G ( s) H ( s)  n
 K p   and Ess  0
s ( 1s  1)( 2 s  1)
For ramp inputs, we define static velocity error coefficient as
K v  lim sG ( s ) H ( s ) .
s 0
 1 1 1 1
 Therefore Ess  lim s   lim
 2 s 0 
s 0
 1  G ( s) H ( s)  s sG ( s) H ( s ) K v
K ( a s  1)( b s  1)
G ( s) H ( s)   K v  0 and Ess  
( 1s  1)( 2 s  1)
K ( a s  1)( b s  1) 1
G ( s) H (s)   Kp  K and Ess 
s ( 1s  1)( 2 s  1) K
Root Locus Method
 The root locus is the collection of the loci of the roots of

the characteristic equation plotted on a real-imaginary
plane as parameters vary.

Root Locus Method: Cont.
For a typical system shown:
R + E Y
K G
-
 The transfer function and characteristic equations are:
Y KG
TF   and KGH  1  0
R KGH  1

N ( s)
 If open-loop transfer function is in polynomial form GH  the
D( s)
characteristic equation is:
N ( s) D( s )
K 1  0  KN ( s)  D( s)  0 or  K 
D( s ) N ( s)
 The root locus is the loci of the roots of this equation as K varies.
o If K=0, the roots are the poles.
o As K increases, the location of the roots change until K approaches  , at
which time the roots converge to the zeros of the open-loop transfer
function.
o For every value of K the roots will be at a different location, yielding a
different behavior.
 Plotting these roots for all values of K (root locus) allows us to both analyze
and predict the behavior of the system.
 For the system shown below, the root locus is:
Im
R + E 5( s  4) Y 10
K
- s ( s  3)( s  7) 8
2
Re
  
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 -2 2
-4
-6
-8
Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control, -10

Start and End of the Root Locus
 The start of root locus is where K is zero.

 This corresponds to poles of the open-loop transfer function.
 Each portion ends at a zero or at  , where K approaches  .
 By plotting the open-loop transfer function zeros, the ends can be marked off.
 Each portion starts at a pole and ends at a zero or  .
 If all the roots are numbered sequentially from right to left, the root locus exists to
the left of the odd-numbered roots only.

Root Locus between the Start and the End Points
 Location of each point relative to a pole or zero is represented by a vector with

real or real-imaginary components.
 The magnitude of the overall transfer function at this point is the ratio of the
products of all vectors from this point to each zero and pole, or:
M TF 
 Mz i

M z1 M z2 
M p i
M p1 M p2  Im
4
3
 The corresponding angles of vectors are added as:
P1 2
z1 z2
P2
    zi    pi  180 1
Re
 
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 -2 2

Magnitude Criterion
 If the following magnitude criterion is satisfied, the closed-loop

characteristic equation is also satisfied and the chosen point
is on the root locus:
KGH  1180
Angle Criterion
 Since K is a real value, the angle criterion is satisfied when
GH  180 .

Asymptotes: The total number of asymptotes is
  # poles  # zeros
Asymptote Angles: The angles of asymptotes are:
 ,3 ,5 ,


 Angles of Asymptotes
1 180
2 90, 270
3 60, 180, 300
4 45, 135, 225, 315

Asymptote Center
Designating the real components of the poles and zeros

as  p and  z , the center of the asymptotes (where they intersect
the real axis) is:
A 
  p   Z


Proportional Controllers
 Proportional controllers are the simplest and are very

common.
 Need to only change the amplification value of a controller
that already exists.
 It is not always possible to find appropriate pole locations
with proportional controllers that yield satisfactory results.
 Other types of controllers may be needed.

Proportional-plus-Integral Controllers
 Integral controllers can eliminate steady-state error.

 The integrator adds an additional s to the denominator of
the transfer function, raising its type.
 A proportional-plus-integral (PI) controller with gains KP
and KI can be represented as shown.
E + Va
KP 
+
KI
s

Proportional-Plus-Integral Controllers: Cont.
We get:
 K 
KP  s  I 
Va KI  KP   K (s  zI )
G  KP  
E s s s
KI
where z I  .
KP
 This controller adds a pole at the origin as well as a zero at z I .
 To not severely affect the shape of the root locus by this addition, we
should pick z I to be close to the origin.
 Integral gain should be small compared to the proportional gain.

Proportional-Plus-Derivative Controllers
 It may be impossible to meet the design requirements with

proportional or proportional-plus-integral controllers.
 The dynamic behavior of the system must be altered in
order to achieve the design requirements.
 This may be achieved by a proportional-plus-derivative
(PD) controller.

Proportional-Plus-Derivative Controllers: Cont.
 A PD controller with gains KP and KD can be represented as shown and derived as

follows:
Va  K  KP
G  K P  K D s  K D  s  P   K (s  zD ) where z  .
E  KD  KD
 The controller adds a zero to the root locus, changing its characteristics.
E
KP + Va

+
KD s

Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controller
 A PD controller may not result in zero steady-state error.

 It may be necessary to add an integrator to the system.
 Ensure that the addition of the integrator does not change the
behavior of the system.
 A possible PID controller may be constructed as shown.
E
KP
KI + Va

s +
+
KD s

Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controller:
Cont.
 The transfer function for this system is:

 K K 
KD  s2  P s  I 
Va KI  KD KD   K D ( s  z1 )( s  z2 )
G  KP   KDs 
E s s s
 To maintain behavior of the system and general shape of root

locus we place one of the zeros near the origin to cancel
dynamic effect of the integrator pole at the origin.
 Although system behavior remains almost unchanged, its
steady-state error goes to zero as system-type is raised.
 Zeros must be real and distinct.
Lead and Lag Compensators
 Ideal integral and derivative controllers are active systems

and require power.
 A derivative controller has a wide bandwidth, creates
problems differentiating noisy signals.
 Lead and lag compensator circuits are passive, consisting
of resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
 A lead compensator has a limited bandwidth, good for
noisy signals.
 Lead and lag compensation is usually performed along with
frequency domain analysis of systems (such as the Bode
diagram).
Lag Compensators
 A lag compensator consists of a zero placed near a pole

close to the origin.
 The addition of the pole near the origin acts similar to an
integrator.
 Over time the system loses its accuracy as the steady-state
error increases.
 Lag compensators are assumed to be leaky.
 The addition of the zero near the pole keeps the root locus
about the same.

Lead Compensators
 A lead compensator consists of a zero near the origin, plus

a pole near it.
 A lead compensator causes little change in the overall
shape of the root locus.
 It provides for passive derivative compensation with
limited bandwidth.

Bode Diagram

A Bode diagram

Open-Loop vs. Closed-Loop

Multiple-Input and Multiple-Output systems
 Most systems we have considered so far are single-input,
single-output (SISO) systems.
 Many systems have multiple degrees of freedom, where more
than one variable controls the systems.
 In this case, multiple inputs and multiple outputs (MIMO)
may be present.
 Different methods may be used for analysis.

State-Space Control Methodology

Cont.

Example:
a a a   a a a 
 For R  E1  1  22  33   E1  R  E1  1  1  22  33 
 s s s   s s s 
E
Y  31
s
Y 1
 3
R s  a1s 2  a2 s  a3
E1
R 1 x1 1 x2 1 x3 Y
+-
s s s
a1
a2
a3
Digital Control
R + Microprocessor Hold or Y
or computer DAC G
-
Sampler
Sensor
or ADC

Cont.
 Signals are discrete because they are sampled and held.
 The signal is represented by finite difference.
y y (n)  y (n  1)
y  
t T
 Z-transform is used to convert to digital domain.

F ( z)   f ( n) Z
n 0
n
Z  f (n  1)   z 1F ( z )

Electro-Mechanical Systems Dynamics: Robot
Actuation and Control
 Figure shows a simplified control system for a robot.
 Joint values from kinematic, dynamic, and trajectory analyses
are sent to the controller.
 In turn, controller applies actuating signals to the actuators to
run the joints.
 Sensors measure the outputs and feed the signals back to the
controller.
 Controller controls the actuating signals accordingly.
Disturbances
Trajectory  d , d , d Control  1  1 

Robot
analysis system s s
Sensors

Actuation and Control: Cont.
 A multi-axis robot has multiple inputs and multiple

outputs for each joint.
 In most robots, each axis is controlled individually (called
independent joint control) as a single-input, single-output
unit.
 The coupling effects from other joints are usually treated
as disturbances.

 A typical motor model is shown.

 It contains both electrical and mechanical elements.
 These are coupled together through the back-emf torque-
voltage.
L R E(s) +  (s)
( s ), 

G1
vbemf -
i
e(t)
H1
J , b

 For vbemf  K B , we may write:

di
Ri  L  e(t )  vbemf  e(t )  K B
dt
 In the Laplace form: E ( s)  RI ( s)  LsI ( s )  K B s( s)  0
 For the mechanical side of the system:
Tbemf  K t i  J   b
 In Laplace form:
K t I ( s )  Js 2 ( s )  bs( s )

Combine them to get:
 R ( Js 2  bs ) Ls ( Js 2  bs ) 
E (s)     K B s  ( s )
 Kt Kt 
Usually L<< than the inertia of the rotor and the load combined.
This equation may be simplified to:
 R( Js 2  bs ) 
E (s)    K B s  ( s )
 Kt 

The transfer function between the output ( s ) and input E(s) is:
( s ) Kt Kt RJ
TF   
E ( s ) R ( Js 2  bs )  K t K B s  b KK 
ss   t B 
 J RJ 
We may multiply the s and ( s ) to get ( s) to get:
( s ) K Kt 1 Kt K B 
TF   where K  and a   b  
E ( s) s  a RJ J R 

Adding a tachometer to the system as a feedback sensor we get:
E(s) +  ( s)
( s ), 

G1
-
L R H1
o
v
vbemf
i
vin
a
R
L
R
L
J, b
b
v


For the tachometer vb  K f  .
In Laplace domain:
I ( s )  ( Ra  RL  Ls )  Vb ( s )  K f s( s )
K f s( s) RL E(s) ( s )
Vo ( s )  I ( s ) RL  + K
Ra  RL  Ls - sa
m
The transfer function for the tachometer is: sn
V0 ( s ) V0 ( s ) K f RL m
TF    
s( s ) ( s )  Ra  RL  Ls  s  n
K f RL Ra  RL
where m  and n  as shown.
L L
The natural frequency and damping ratio of the system can be calculated as follows:
 LJs 2  s( RJ  Lb)  Rb  K t K B 
E (s)    s( s )
 K t 
The transfer function between the input voltage and output angular velocity is:
 
 Kt 
( s ) LJ
 
E (s)  2  RJ  Lb  Rb  K t K B 
s  s 
  LJ  LJ 
This is second-order in the form of s 2  2n s   2 . The damping coefficient and natural
frequency of the joint (and the connected load) can be calculated from it.


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CHAPTER EIGHT

MOTION CONTROL SYSTEMS

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 What is a control system

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 Pictorial representation of a system

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 The behavior of a system is a function of:

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

Mechanical Systems Electrical Systems

 Replaces time domain f(t) to Laplace domain F(s).

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 Conversion equations may be derived mathematically.

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 Allows calculation of the final value or steady-state value

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 The process of converting an s-domain equation into t-

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 The equation that represents the ratio of output to input in

 Open-loop transfer function: The ratio of the feedback

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 Feed-forward transfer function: The ratio of the output

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 The following rules apply in simplifying block diagrams:

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

A A-B A-B-C A A-B-C

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

A A-B AG-BG A AG-BG

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 First-order systems are represented in the following

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 The time response of the system is:

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

The response of such a system to a step function u(t) is:

 These equations have an exponential portion and

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 If   0 , indicating no damping, the exponential portion is a constant. The

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 Percent overshoot (%OS) is the ratio of overshoot to steady-state value

 A typical 2nd-order response:

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 Characteristic equation is when the denominator of the

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 A first-order transfer function has only one pole:

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 For second-order transfer functions, the solution for the

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

Four possibilities exist:

 The response of the system changes as the poles move in

R(s) +  E(s) Y(s)

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 Assume the open-loop transfer function G(s)H(s) can be represented as:

 For n = 0, system is type-0, for n = 1, system is type-1, etc.

Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control,

 For a type-1 or higher systems

 For a type-0 system: