SS symmetry

Article
Controller for the Grid-Connected Microinverter
Output Current Tracking
Edvardas Bielskis 1,2, * , Algirdas Baskys 1,3 and Gediminas Valiulis 2
1 State Research Institute Center for Physical Sciences and Technology, Sauletekio av. 3, LT-10257 Vilnius,
Lithuania; algirdas.baskys@ftmc.lt
2 Institute of Regional Development, Siauliai University, P. Visinskio str. 25-402, LT-76351 Siauliai, Lithuania;
gediminas.valiulis@su.lt
3 Faculty of Electronics, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Naugarduko st. 41, 03227 Vilnius, Lithuania
* Correspondence: edvardas.bielskis@su.lt




Received: 19 November 2019; Accepted: 2 January 2020; Published: 7 January 2020


Abstract: The modification of the proportional–integral (PI) controller with the variable proportional
constant for tracking of the grid-connected photovoltaic microinverter output current has been
proposed. The obtained results show that in the case when the proportional constant of the PI
controller varies in time according to the appropriate law, the microinverter output current sinus shape
distortions decrease as compared to the case when the ordinary PI controller is used. The operation
of the microinverter with the proposed controller was investigated for the cases when the electrical
grid voltage sinus shape is not distorted and when it is distorted by the higher harmonics.

Keywords: grid-connected photovoltaic microinverter; controller; output current tracking; current

distortions; grid voltage distortions

1. Introduction
Microinverters are designed for a single photovoltaic module with a power of 50–350 W and are
increasingly used to convert the photovoltaic energy into the standard power grid energy in small
scale grid-connected residential applications [1,2]. Microinverters can also be used in high power
solar farms instead of centralized inverters. Their application in solar farms increases the efficiency of
energy harvesting because the maximum power point tracking is performed individually for each
module [1–3].
The grid-connected microinverter operates as a current source. Therefore, it is important to keep
the shape of the grid-connected photovoltaic inverter output current as close as possible to the sinus
to minimize the generation of higher harmonics [4–7]. Higher harmonics can be suppressed using
traditional LC filters. However, passive filters are not efficient in removing harmonics [8–13]. It is more
effective to include the feedback control system into the structure of the microinverter for tracking
of the sinusoidal reference to guarantee the sinus shape of the output current and to minimize the
steady-state error between the actual output current and the current reference [14–18].
The most popular controllers used for tracking of the grid-connected inverter output
current are proportional–integral (PI) [19–25], proportional–integral–derivative (PID) [3,21,26,27],
and proportional–resonant (PR) [2,15,21,28–32] controllers. However, more sophisticated predictive
current controllers can be used as well [4,33,34].
The PI and PID controllers are usually employed in the industrial microinverters [29].
The popularity of these well-known controllers is determined by the easy implementation, efficiency,
and well-developed tuning techniques of controller parameters [21]. The disadvantage of PI and PID
controllers is that they cannot track the sinus reference signal without the steady-state error.

Symmetry 2020, 12, 112; doi:10.3390/sym12010112 www.mdpi.com/journal/symmetry

Symmetry 2020, 12, 112 2 of 13

The transfer function of PR controller [32]:

2Kr s
GPR (s) = KP + (1)
s2 + ω2
where KP is the proportional constant, Kr is the resonant gain and ω is the resonant frequency.
Theoretically, the PR controller is characterized by the infinite gain at the resonant frequency (for the
standard electric grid ω = 314 rad/s) and, therefore, it should provide a zero steady-state error between
the actual output current of the inverter and the current reference. However, the employment of the PR
controller is challenging because there are no common tuning methods of controller parameters [32,35].
The predictive current controllers are more sophisticated as compared to the PI, PID, and PR
controllers. The algorithm of the predictive current controller estimates the inverter output current value
of the next switching cycle using the results of the previous cycle and provides a more precise control
of the inverter output current and lower current shape distortions. However, the implementation of
the predictive current controller is complicated and it requires a good understanding of the system
parameters [4,33].
The authors of this work have found that when the proportional constant of the PI controller
varies in time according to a certain law, the microinverter output current sinus shape distortions
decrease as compared to the case when the ordinary PI controller is used. The novelty of this work is
that a new modification of the PI controller with the variable proportional constant for tracking of the
grid-connected photovoltaic microinverter output current has been proposed. This controller provides
more effective suppression of higher harmonics as compared to ordinary PI controller. The operation of
the proposed controller was investigated using it in the single stage photovoltaic microinverter based on
a couple of two-switch DC-DC flyback converters. The photovoltaic grid-connected microinverter based
on this topology [36,37], which was previously proposed by the authors of the paper, is characterized
by the higher energy efficiency as compared to the microinverters with the traditional topology.
The obtained investigation results of the grid-connected photovoltaic microinverter using proposed
modification of the PI controller are compared with these obtained using popular in microinverter
applications ordinary PI controller. Matlab/Simulink (Mathworks; Natick, MA; USA) software was used for
the investigation. Additionally, the experimental investigation of the proposed controller was performed.
The comparison of proposed controller with other more advanced controllers that can be used for
current control, e.g., with proportional–resonant and predictive current controllers was not analyzed
in this work because they are less popular in microinverter applications. On the other hand, it is
self-evident without analysis that these controllers provide lower current distortions and lower
steady-state error, but their implementation is more complicated [4,32–35].

2. Control System for Tracking of the Grid-Connected Microinverter Output Current

The block diagram of a single stage photovoltaic microinverter based on a couple of two-switch
DC–DC flyback converters [36] is given in Figure 1. The feedback control system for tracking of the
sinusoidal reference has to be used to effectively suppress the higher harmonics of the output current.
The purpose of the control system is to form the pulse width modulation (PWM) signals for the control
of the microinverter switches in such a way that the shape of the output current of the inverter would be
as close as possible to the sinus. The proposed structure of the microinverter control system is given in
Figure 2. It presents the feedback control system for tracking of the sinusoidal setup signal. The PWM
signal is formed by the comparator circuit, which compares the controller output signal with the saw-teeth
signal. The instantaneous duty cycle of the PWM signal can be found using the following equation:

u(ti )
DPWMi = (2)
UAst

where U(ti ) is the controller output signal value at time moment ti , and UAst is the saw-tooth signal
amplitude. The condition U(ti ) ≤ UAst has to be satisfied.
 Symmetry 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 13
Symmetry 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 13

𝑢 𝑡
𝐷
𝐷 =𝑢 𝑡
= (2)
(2)
𝑈𝑈
Symmetry 2020, 12, 112 3 of 13
where U(t
where U(ti)i) is
is the
the controller
controller output
output signal signal value
value at at time
time moment
moment tti,i,and
andU UAst
Ast is the saw-tooth signal
is the saw-tooth signal
amplitude. The
amplitude. The condition
condition U(t U(ti)i) ≤≤ U
UAst
Ast has to be satisfied.
has to be satisfied.
The
The first
Thefirst
firstorderorder low-pass
orderlow-pass
low-pass filter filter
filter is isemployed
is employed in
employed in the
in the current
the current feedback
current feedback circuit
feedbackcircuit (Figure
circuit(Figure
(Figure2) 2)2)to
totoincrease
increase
increase
the
the stability
thestability
stability of of the controller
of the controller operation
controller operation
operationunder under the
underthe the influence
influence
influence of
of ofcurrent ripples.
current
current ripples.
ripples. The operation
The operation
The operation of the
of theof
microinverter
microinverter
the microinverter control
control
control system
system
system hashas
has to be
to be synchronized
tosynchronized
be synchronized withwith
with the mains
the mains power
power
the mains system.
system.
power Therefore,
Therefore,
system. the
the
Therefore,
mains
mains
the mains power
power
power system
system
system voltage
voltage
voltage phase
phase phase has
hashasbeen
been observed
observed
been observed using
using
using the
thethe voltage
voltage
voltage feedback
feedback circuit.
feedbackcircuit.circuit.TheTheThePWM
PWM
PWM
signal provided
provided by
signal
signal provided bybythethe comparator
the comparator is
comparator is is conducted to
conducted
conducted toto the input
the
the input HF
input HFHF control 1,
control
control 1, 1, i.e., to
to to
i.e.,
i.e., the switches
thethe switches Q1,
switches Q1,Q1,Q4,
Q4, and
Q4, and the
the potential
potential that that opens
opens the the switch
switch Q5 Q5 isis sent
sent toto the
the LF
LF control
control 11 input
input (Figure
(Figure 1) 1) during
during the the
and the potential that opens the switch Q5 is sent to the LF control 1 input (Figure 1) during the half
half period,
half period, at at which the the electric
electric gridgrid voltage
voltage isis positive.
positive. During
During the the negative
negative half half period
period the the PWM
period, at whichwhich the electric grid voltage is positive. During the negative half period the PWMPWM signal
signal
signal has
has to
to be
be sent
sent to
to the
the HF
HF control
control 22 input
input (to
(to switches
switches Q2,
Q2, Q3)
Q3) and
and the
the potential
potential that
that opens
opens the
the
has to be sent to the HF control 2 input (to switches Q2, Q3) and the potential that opens the transistor
transistor
transistor Q6—to the input LF control 2.
Q6—to the Q6—to
input LF thecontrol
input LF2. control 2.

Figure1.1.
Figure
Figure 1.Block
Blockdiagram
Block diagramof
diagram ofaaasingle
of single stage
stage photovoltaic
photovoltaic microinverter
photovoltaic microinverter based
microinverterbased on
basedononaaacouple
couple ofoftwo-switch
coupleof two-switch
two-switch
DC–DC
DC–DC flyback
DC–DCflyback converters
flybackconverters
convertersinin the
in the Matlab/Simulink
the Matlab/Simulink environment.
Matlab/Simulink environment.
environment.

Figure 2.Microinverter
Figure2.
Figure 2.
control
Microinverter control
Microinverter
system
control system in the Matlab/Simulink
system in Matlab/Simulinkenvironment.
environment.
the Matlab/Simulink environment.
3. Analysis of the Microinverter Control System Based on the PI Controller
3. Analysis
3. Analysis of
of the
the Microinverter
Microinverter Control
Control System
System Based
Based on
on the
the PI
PI Controller
Controller
The behavior of the microinverter control system (Figure 2) based on the ordinary PI controller
was analyzed. The output signal of this controller is:

Zt
U (t) = KP e(t) + KI e(t)dt (3)
t0
 The behavior of the microinverter control system (Figure 2) based on the ordinary PI controller
was analyzed. The output signal of this controller is:

Symmetry 2020, 12, 112 𝑈 𝑡 =𝐾 𝑒 𝑡 +𝐾 𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 (3)

4 of 13

whereKKPP and
where and KKII are
are proportional
proportional and and integral
integral constants,
constants, tt isis time,
time,tt00 is
is the
the initial
initial time,
time, and
and e(t)
e(t) isisthe
the
controlerror
control errorthat
thatacts
actsas
asthe
theinput
inputsignal
signalofofthethecontroller.
controller.
The inverter control system has to provide
The inverter control system has to provide the thesinus
sinusshape
shapeof ofthe
themicroinverter
microinverteroutput
outputcurrent
current
tracking the sine setup signal. The phase of the inverter current has to coincide
tracking the sine setup signal. The phase of the inverter current has to coincide with the mains power with the mains power
systemvoltage
system voltagephase.
phase. The
The performance
performance of of the
the investigated
investigated inverter
inverter control
control system
system depends
depends notnot only
only
on the control algorithm of the controller but on the active resistances and
on the control algorithm of the controller but on the active resistances and inductive resistances ofinductive resistances of
flyback transformer windings and the magnetizing inductance. It depends
flyback transformer windings and the magnetizing inductance. It depends on the parameters of the on the parameters of the
outputCL
output CLfilter
filteras
aswell.
well.
The parameters
The parameters of offlyback
flybacktransformer
transformerand andCL CLfilter
filterare
arepresented
presentedininTable
Table1.1.

Table1.1. Parameters
Table Parametersof
offlyback
flybacktransformer
transformerand
andCL
CLfilter.
filter.

Component
Component Parameter
Parameter Value
Value
Magnetic
Magnetic inductance
inductance 36 µH36 µH
Primary winding active resistance
Primary winding active resistance 0.01 Ω Ω
0.01
Flybacktransformer
Flyback transformer
Secondary winding
Secondary activeactive
winding resistance Ω Ω
resistance 0.47 0.47
Transformation ratio ratio
Transformation 1:12 1:12
Capacitor
CapacitorofofCLCLfilter
filter Capacitance
Capacitance 200 nF
200 nF
Inductor of CL filter
Inductor of CL filter Inductance
Inductance 330 µH
330 µH

The
Theparameters
parametersofof thethe
PI PI
controller
controller were adjusted
were for the
adjusted forminimal total harmonic
the minimal distortion
total harmonic (THD)
distortion
of inverter
(THD) output output
of inverter current.current.
The obtained valuesvalues
The obtained of PI controller parameters
of PI controller are asare
parameters follows: KP =K10,
as follows: P=

K10,
I = K15.
I = The
15. microinverter
The microinverter output
output current
currentfor the
for case
the when
case when thetheelectric
electricgrid
grid voltage
voltage shape
shape is
is not
not
distorted
distortedisispresented
presentedinin Figure
Figure3. 3.
The Theanalysis waswas
analysis provided for the
provided for microinverter output
the microinverter current
output with
current
200
withmA, 200400
mA, mA400andmA600and
mA 600
amplitude, that correspond
mA amplitude, to 32 W, 62toW,
that correspond 32and
W, 97
62W W,power
and 97delivered
W power to
the grid, respectively.
delivered It is seen (Figure
to the grid, respectively. It is 3) that
seen the shape
(Figure of the shape
3) that inverter of output current
the inverter is close
output to theis
current
sine.
closeHowever,
to the sine.the However,
high-frequency ripples are seenripples
the high-frequency on the current
are seen curve.
on theIt has been curve.
current estimated thatbeen
It has the
amplitude
estimated of thethe
that ripples stronglyofdepends
amplitude the rippleson the value of
strongly the PI controller
depends proportional
on the value of the PIconstant KP .
controller
The ripples decrease
proportional constantif K
the value
P. The of KP decrease
ripples decreases. However,
if the value ofthe
KPshape of theHowever,
decreases. current worsens
the shape and ofthe
the
phase
current shift of current
worsens andisthe
introduced at low
phase shift KP . All is
of current results presented
introduced in the
at low KP.work have been
All results obtained
presented in for
the
the
work28 have
kHz switching frequency
been obtained for theof28
inverter switches.frequency of inverter switches.
kHz switching

(a) (b) (c)

Figure3.3.The
Figure Themicroinverter
microinverteroutput
output current
current (black
(black curves)
curves) when
when using
using thecontroller
the PI PI controller at different
at different load
load power: (a) 32 W; (b) 62 W; (c) 97 W. Red curves represent the electric grid
power: (a) 32 W; (b) 62 W; (c) 97 W. Red curves represent the electric grid voltage. voltage.

The microinverter output current spectra at the 32 W, 62 W, and 97 W load power obtained
using the fast Fourier transform are given in Figure 4. It is seen that 37–43 and 79–83 harmonics are
characterized by the highest amplitudes. The analysis of the harmonic spectrum shows that the THD,
which is defined as the ratio of the root mean square (RMS) of the higher harmonics to the RMS of the
fundamental 50 Hz harmonic, is 6.3% at 32 W, 6.6% at 62 W, and 5.5% at 97 W load power.
 SymmetryThe
2020,microinverter output
12, x FOR PEER REVIEW current spectra at the 32 W, 62 W, and 97 W load power5 obtained of 13
using the fast Fourier transform are given in Figure 4. It is seen that 37–43 and 79–83 harmonics are
The microinverter
characterized by the output
highestcurrent spectraThe
amplitudes. at the 32 W,of62the
analysis W,harmonic
and 97 Wspectrum
load power obtained
shows that the
using
THD, which is defined as the ratio of the root mean square (RMS) of the higher harmonicsare
the fast Fourier transform are given in Figure 4. It is seen that 37–43 and 79–83 harmonics to the
characterized
RMS 2020,
Symmetry of the by the highest50amplitudes.
fundamental
12, 112 Hz harmonic, Theisanalysis
6.3% atof32the W,harmonic
6.6% at 62spectrum
W, and shows
5.5% atthat
975Wthe load
of 13
THD, which
power. is defined as the ratio of the root mean square (RMS) of the higher harmonics to the
RMS of the fundamental 50 Hz harmonic, is 6.3% at 32 W, 6.6% at 62 W, and 5.5% at 97 W load
power.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure (a)
4. Spectra
4. Spectra of theofoutput
the output
currentcurrent of(b)
the microinverter
of the microinverter based onbased
the PIon the PI(c)
controllercontroller
at the loadatpower:
the load
power:
(a) 32 W; (b)(a)6232W;
W;(c)(b)
9762
WW; (c) 97
in the W when
case in the the
caseelectric
when grid
the electric
voltagegrid voltage
shape is notshape is not distorted.
distorted.
Figure 4. Spectra of the output current of the microinverter based on the PI controller at the load
power: (a) 32 W; (b) 62 W; (c) 97 W in the case when the electric grid voltage shape is not distorted.
Figure 5 shows
Figure thethe
5 shows analysis results
analysis of the
results microinverter
of the output
microinverter current
output when
current whenthethe
electric gridgrid
electric
voltage is distorted
voltage by third-
is distorted andand
by third- fifth-order harmonics.
fifth-order TheThe
harmonics. curve of the
curve grid
of the voltage
grid is described
voltage by by
is described
Figure 5 shows the analysis results of the microinverter output current when the electric grid
thethe
following
followingequation:
equation:
voltage is distorted by third- and fifth-order harmonics. The curve of the grid voltage is described by
u(t)𝑢 =𝑡 u= 𝑢 sin 𝜔 𝑡 + 𝑢 sin 𝜔 𝑡 + 𝑢 sin 𝜔 𝑡
the following equation:
1 sin(ω1 t) + u3 sin(ω3 t) + u5 sin(ω5 t) (4)(4)
where 𝑢 is the fundamental 𝑢 𝑡 harmonic
= 𝑢 sin 𝜔component
𝑡 + 𝑢 sin of 𝜔 325
𝑡 +V; 𝑢 𝑢sin is𝜔the
𝑡 third-order harmonic (4) voltage
where u
component
1 is the fundamental
of 55 V; 𝑢 is harmonic
the component
fifth-order harmonic of 325
voltageV; u is the
component
3 third-order
of 55 V. harmonic voltage
where 𝑢 is the fundamental harmonic component of 325 V; 𝑢 is the third-order harmonic voltage
component It isofof
seen u5 is the5)fifth-order
55 V;(Figure that at theharmonic voltageload
microinverter component
of 32 W of 55 V.asymmetry of the current
component 55 V; 𝑢 is the fifth-order harmonic voltage component ofthe
55 V.
It is seen
half-cycle (Figure 5)
is observed. that at the microinverter load of 32 W the asymmetry of the current half-cycle
It is seen (Figure 5)The thatasymmetry decreases with
at the microinverter loadincreasing
of 32 W the of the load
asymmetry power of and it becomes
the current
is observed.
almost The
unnoticeableasymmetry
at the decreases
97 W load with
of the increasing
microinverter. of the load power and it becomes almost
half-cycle is observed. The asymmetry decreases with increasing of the load power and it becomes
unnoticeable at the 97 W load of the microinverter.
almost The microinverter
unnoticeable at theoutput
97 W load current
of the spectra at the 32 W, 62 W, and 97 W load power are given in
microinverter.
The
Figure microinverter
6. Using the output
data current
presented inspectra
spectra, at itthe 32 W,estimated
can 62 W, and 97 the W load power are given in
The microinverter output current spectra at the 32beW, 62 W, andthat THDpower
97 W load of theareoutput
givencurrent
in
Figure 6. Using
is 9.9% at 32the W,data
8.9%presented
at 62 W,ininandspectra,
6.1%ititat
can97beW estimated
load power, that the THDthe of the outputare current is as
Figure 6. Using the data presented spectra, can be estimated that i.e.,
the THD distortions
of the output higher
current
9.9% at 32 W, 8.9% at 62 W, and 6.1% at 97 W load power, i.e., the distortions are higher as compared
is compared
9.9% at 32toW, values
8.9% (6.3%,
at 62 W, 6.6%,andand6.1% 5.5%,
at 97respectively)
W load power, that were obtained
i.e., the for the
distortions arecase
higherwhenas the
tocompared
values
electric(6.3%,
grid 6.6%, and 5.5%, respectively) that were obtained for the case
to values (6.3%, 6.6%, and 5.5%, respectively) that were obtained for the case when thegrid
voltage was not distorted. Therefore, the conclusion can be when
drawn the
that electric
the grid
electric
voltage
electric was
voltage grid not
shape distorted.
voltagedistortion
was notTherefore,
by third-the
distorted. and conclusion
fifth-order
Therefore, can
the be drawnincrease
harmonics
conclusion thatbe
can the electric
the
drawn grid
output
that voltage
current
the electric shape
distortion
grid
distortion
and this
voltage by third-
increment
shape and fifth-order
is higher
distortion harmonics
at lower
by third- load. increase
and fifth-order the output current distortion and
harmonics increase the output current distortionthis increment
isand
higher
this at lower load.
increment is higher at lower load.

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 5. The microinverter output current (black curves) when using the PI controller at a different
Figure
load5.5.
Figure Themicroinverter
The
power: microinverter output
(a) 32 W; (b)output
62 W; (c)current
97 W.(black
current curves)grid
The electric when
when using the
the PI
using(red
voltage PI controller
controller
curves) atataadifferent
is distorteddifferent
by third-
load
load power:
power:
and (a)3232W;
(a)
fifth-order W;(b)
(b)6262W;W;
harmonics. (c)(c)
9797W.W. The
The electric
electric grid
grid voltage
voltage (red
(red curves)
curves) is distorted
is distorted by third-
by third- and
and fifth-order
fifth-order harmonics.
harmonics.
Symmetry 2020, 12, 112 6 of 13
Symmetry 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 13

(a) (b) (c)

Figure6.6.Spectra
Figure Spectraofof
thethe output
output current
current of the
of the microinverter
microinverter basedbased
on theonPIthe PI controller
controller at the at
loadthepower:
load
power:
(a) 32 W; (a)
(b)32
62 W;
W; (b) 62 W.
(c) 97 W;The
(c) 97 W. The
electric gridelectric
voltagegrid voltage isbydistorted
is distorted third- andby fifth-order
third- and harmonics.
fifth-order
harmonics.
4. PI Controller with the Variable Proportional Constant
4. PI Controller with the Variable Proportional Constant
The simulation results (Figures 3 and 5) show that the microinverter output current includes
high-frequency ripples.results
The simulation The amplitude
(Figures 3ofandthe ripples
5) showdepends
that theon the aggressiveness
microinverter outputofcurrent
the proportional
includes
term of the PI controller,
high-frequency ripples. i.e.,The on the valueofof the
amplitude the proportional
ripples depends termon KP .theThe amplitude of of
aggressiveness ripples
the
proportional
decreases term K
at lower ofPthe PI controller,
. However, if KP i.e., on low,
is too the value of the current
the output proportional term Kof
amplitude P. The amplitude of
the microinverter
ripples
does decreases
not reach at point
the set lowervalue.
KP. However,
If a higher if value
KP is of tooKPlow, the output
is selected, currentofamplitude
the ripples of the
the microinverter
microinverter
output does not reach
current increase. Whenthe set point the
evaluating value. If a higher
obtained value
results, oneofcan
KP is selected,
assume thatthe
at ripples of the
a low current
microinverter
value output
that is close current
to zero increase.
it is more When
suitable to evaluating
use a lowerthe obtained
value results,
of KP and at a one
highcan assume
value that
that is at
close
toa the
lowamplitude
current valuevaluethat
it isisnecessary
close to zero it is more
to select suitable
the value of Kto use a lower value of KP and at a high
P higher.
value that on
Based is close to the amplitude
the conclusion made value
above,ittheis necessary
assumption to select
can be the valuethat
made of KKPPhigher.
should be varied in
Based on the conclusion made above, the assumption can be made
proportion to the microinverter output current to reduce the ripples of the output current.beThe that KP should varied in
control
proportion to the microinverter output current to reduce the ripples of
algorithm of the suggested controller, which presents the PI controller with the variable proportionalthe output current. The
control K
constant algorithm of the suggested controller, which presents the PI controller with the variable
P = KV (t) KC , is as follows:
proportional constant KP = KV(t) KC, is as follows:
Zt
U𝑈(t𝑡) ==K𝐾V (t𝑡) K 𝐾C 𝑒e(t𝑡) +
+K 𝐾I 𝑒e(𝑡t)𝑑𝑡 dt (5)
(5)
t0

whereKK
where (t) and
VV(t) and KKCC are
are the
the time-varying
time-varying and the constantconstant terms
terms of of the
the proportional
proportional constant,
constant,
respectively.The
respectively. Thesimulation
simulationresults
results ofof microinveter
microinveter control system show show thatthat low
low distortions
distortionsof ofthe
the
microinverter output current shape are reached when K (t) during every half
microinverter output current shape are reached when KV (t) during every half period of the current
V period of the current
changesin
changes intime
timewith
with the
the current
current byby the
the similar
similarlaw.
law.ItItwas
wasfound
foundthatthatthe
thesame
sameresults areare
results obtained
obtainedif
ifinstead
insteadofofthe
thepure
puresinus
sinuslawlawits
itspiecewise
piecewiselinear
linearapproximation
approximationgiven givenininFigure
Figure77isisused
usedfor
forthe
the
variation of the K V(t). The piecewise linear approximation was used because it is easier to
variation of the KV (t). The piecewise linear approximation was used because it is easier to implement.
implement.
Equation Equationthe
(6) presents (6) piecewise
presents the piecewise
linear lineargiven
dependents dependents given
in Figure in Figure
7. The 7. The of
parameters parameters
piecewise
of piecewise
linear linear approximation
approximation of KV(t) were
of KV (t) were estimated estimated
by variation ofby variation of approximation
approximation parameters by the parameters
criterion
by the criterion of minimal THD of microinverter
of minimal THD of microinverter output current. output current.

0 ≤ t < 1.25



 0.3 + 0.24t,
1.25 ≤ t < 2.5




 0.6 + 0.12(t − 1.25),
 0.75 + 0.02(t − 2.5), . . . 2.5 ≤ t < 5



KV (t) =  (6)
0.8 − 0.02(t − 5), 5 ≤ t < 7.5



7.5 ≤ t < 8.75

0.75 + 0.12(t − 7.5),




8.75 ≤ t < 10

 0.6 − 0.24(t − 8.75),

changes in time with the current by the similar law. It was found that the same results are obtained if
instead of the pure sinus law its piecewise linear approximation given in Figure 7 is used for the
variation of the KV(t). The piecewise linear approximation was used because it is easier to
implement. Equation (6) presents the piecewise linear dependents given in Figure 7. The parameters
ofSymmetry
piecewise
2020, linear
12, 112 approximation of KV(t) were estimated by variation of approximation parameters
7 of 13
by the criterion of minimal THD of microinverter output current.

Symmetry 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 13

Figure 7. The variation of time-varying constant KV(t) with time.

0.3 + 0.24𝑡,
⎧0.6 + 0.12 𝑡 − 1.25 ,
⎪ .
0.75 + 0.02 𝑡 − 2.5 , . .
𝐾 𝑡 = . (6)
⎨ 0.8 − 0.02 𝑡 − 5 ,
⎪0.75 + 0.12 𝑡 − 7.5 , .
⎩0.6 − 0.24 𝑡 − 8.75 , . .
.
Figure 7. The variation of time-varying constant KV (t) with time.
The block diagram of the microinverter control system based on the PI controller with the
The block diagram of the microinverter control system based on the PI controller with the variable
variable proportional constant created using Matlab/Simulink software is presented in Figure 8.
proportional constant created using Matlab/Simulink software is presented in Figure 8.

Themicroinverter
Figure8.8.The
Figure microinverter control
control system
system based
basedononthe
thePIPIcontroller
controllerwith
withthe variable
the proportional
variable proportional
constant (the proposed PI controller is depicted with the darker background).
constant (the proposed PI controller is depicted with the darker background).
5. Analysis of the Microinverter Control System Based on the PI Controller with the Variable
5. Proportional
Analysis of Constant
the Microinverter Control System Based on the PI Controller with the Variable
Proportional Constant
The operation of the microinverter control system based on the proposed PI controller with
theThe operation
variable of the microinverter
proportional control system
constant was analyzed based
at the 32 onW,
W, 62 theand
proposed PI controlleroutput
97 W microinverter with the
power, proportional
variable which correspond to 200
constant mA,
was 400 mA,atand
analyzed the600
32 mA
W, 62amplitudes
W, and 97of the microinverter load
W microinverter output
current,
power, respectively.
which correspond to 200 mA, 400 mA, and 600 mA amplitudes of the microinverter load
The
current, analyzed current trucking control system is nonlinear and the parameters of controller have
respectively.
to be
Theadjusted
analyzedfor the minimal
current THD of
trucking inverter
control outputiscurrent.
system Known
nonlinear andclassical PI controller
the parameters tuning
of controller
methods did not work in this case. The PI controller parameters can be tuned using
have to be adjusted for the minimal THD of inverter output current. Known classical PI controller optimization
techniques
tuning in such
methods did a situation
not work [38].
in The
thisunivariate
case. Thesearch method algorithm
PI controller [39,40]
parameters canwas
beused for the
tuned using
tuning of controller parameters. This method is developed for the optimization of non-linear
optimization techniques in such a situation [38]. The univariate search method algorithm [39,40] was systems.
During every iteration only one variable is varied to find its optimal value for the fixed initial values of
used for the tuning of controller parameters. This method is developed for the optimization of
another variables. After all variables are varied, the procedure is repeated again until the minimal
non-linear systems. During every iteration only one variable is varied to find its optimal value for
(maximal) value of objective function is obtained.
the fixed initial values of another variables. After all variables are varied, the procedure is repeated
The tuning aim of the proposed PI controller was to find the values of controller parameters KC
again until the minimal (maximal) value of objective function is obtained.
and KI , at which the THD of the microinverter output current is minimal, i.e., the tuning leads to an
The tuning aim of the proposed PI controller was to find the values of controller parameters KC
optimization task with two variables. Using the univariate search method, the controller parameters
and KI, at which the THD of the microinverter output current is minimal, i.e., the tuning leads to an
optimization task with two variables. Using the univariate search method, the controller parameters
were tuned as follows: at the fixed initial KC = KCi value, the KI = KIo1 value, at which the THD gets
minimal, was obtained; at a fixed KI = KIo1 value, the KC = KCo1 value, at which the THD gets the
minimum, was found. This process was repeated until the minimum THD value was obtained. The
Symmetry 2020, 12, 112 8 of 13

were tuned as follows: at the fixed initial KC = KCi value, the KI = KIo1 value, at which the THD
gets minimal, was obtained; at a fixed KI = KIo1 value, the KC = KCo1 value, at which the THD gets
the minimum, was found. This process was repeated until the minimum THD value was obtained.
The optimization procedure was also repeated with different initial KC = KCi values. The obtained
values
Symmetry
of parameters
Symmetry2020,
2020,12,12,x xFOR
ofPEER
PI controller
FORPEER REVIEW
REVIEW
with the variable proportional constant are as follows: KC 8=8of 10,
of1313
KI = 15.
The
The
Themicroinverter
microinverter
microinverter output
output
outputcurrent
current
current and
and the
and thegrid
the gridvoltage
gridvoltage are
voltage arepresented
arepresented
presented ininFigure
inFigure
Figure9.9.The
9.The
Theobtained
obtained
obtained
analysis
analysis
analysisresults
results
resultsshow that that
show
show the employment
that the
theemployment of the proposed
employment ofofthe PI controller
theproposed
proposed PIPIwith the variable
controller
controller withproportional
with the
thevariable
variable
constant allows
proportional
proportionalconstant us to reduce
constantallows the high frequency
allowsusustotoreducereducethe ripples
thehigh of the
highfrequency output
frequencyripples current
ripplesofoftheas compared
theoutput with
outputcurrent theasas
current
case when
compared the
comparedwith ordinary
withthe thecasePI controller
casewhenwhenthe is used
theordinary (compare
ordinaryPIPIcontroller current curves
controllerisisused presented
used(compare
(comparecurrent in Figure
currentcurves 9 with those
curvespresented
presented
given in Figure
ininFigure
Figure 9 9with 3).those
with The
thosemicroinverter
given
givenininFigure
Figureoutput
3).
3).The
Thecurrent spectra at
microinverter
microinverter the 32current
output
output W, 62 W,
current and 97
spectra
spectra atatW
the load
the 3232W,power
W,6262W,W,
are
and given in
and9797WWload Figure
loadpower 10.
powerare Using the
aregiven data
givenininFigure presented
Figure10. 10.Usingin spectra,
Usingthe thedata it can
datapresentedbe estimated
presentedininspectra, that the
spectra,ititcan THD of
canbebeestimatedthe
estimated
output
that current
thatthe
theTHDTHD isofof
4.4%
the atoutput
32 W,current
theoutput 3.4%
currentatis62 W,
is4.4%
4.4% and 3.3%
atat3232W,W,at 97 W
3.4%
3.4% atatload
6262W,power.
W,and The
and3.3%
3.3%atcomparison
at9797WWloadloadofpower.
obtained
power. The
The
THD values
comparison with
of these
obtained received
THD for
valuesthe case
with when
these the ordinary
received for PI
the controller
case
comparison of obtained THD values with these received for the case when the ordinary PI controller when istheused, showing
ordinary PI that the
controller
employment
isisused,
used,showing of the that
showing proposed
thatthe PI controllerofwith
theemployment
employment ofthethethe variablePIPI
proposed
proposed proportional
controller
controllerwithconstant
with the allows
thevariable
variable us to reduce
proportional
proportional
the THD of
constant
constant the microinverter
allows
allows usustotoreduce
reducetheoutput
theTHD
THD current
ofofthe by 30% at 32 W,
themicroinverter
microinverter outputby 48%
output at 62by
current
current W,
by30%andatby
30% 40%
at3232 W,W,byat 9748%
by48% Watat
load power.
6262W,W,andandby by40%40%atat9797WWload loadpower.
power.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b) (c)
(c)
Figure
Figure 9. 9.
Figure 9.The
The The microinverter
microinverter
microinverter output
output
output current
current (black(black
current (blackcurves)
curves)curves)when
when
when using using
theusing the
thePIPIcontroller
PI controller controller
with with
withthe
the variablethe
variable
variable proportional
proportional constant
constantat
atdifferent
different load
load power:
power:(a) 32
(a) 32W,
W,(b) 62
(b) 62W;W;(c)
(c)97
97
proportional constant at different load power: (a) 32 W, (b) 62 W; (c) 97 W. Red curves represent theW.
W. Red
Redcurves
curves
represent
gridthe
represent
electric theelectric
electricgrid
voltage. gridvoltage.
voltage.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b) (c)
(c)
Figure
Figure
Figure 10.
10. The
10.
The Thespectraofofthe
spectra
spectra ofthe
the output
output
output currentofofthe
current
current ofthe microinverter
the microinverter
microinverter based ononon
based
based the
the PIPIcontroller
the PIcontroller with
controller with
with the
the the
variable
variable
variable proportional
proportional
proportional constant
constant
constant at the
at the
at the load
load power:
load power:
power: (a) 32
(a)(a) W;
32 32
W;W;(b) 62
(b)(b) W;
62 62
W;W; (c) 97
(c) (c) W)
97 W)
97 W) in the
in the
in the case
case
case when
whenwhen the
thethe
electric
electric grid
electric
gridgridvoltage shape
voltage
voltage shape
shape isisnot
isnot
not distorted.
distorted.
distorted.

The
The
Theinvestigation
investigationof the
investigation ofofinverter
the outputoutput
theinverter
inverter current using
outputcurrent the
current proposed
using
using the controller
proposedwas
theproposed also performed,
controller
controller was
wasalso
also
when the
performed, electrical
when grid
the voltage
electricalwas distorted
grid voltageby the
was third- and
distorted fifth-order
by the harmonics
third- and and it
fifth-order
performed, when the electrical grid voltage was distorted by the third- and fifth-order harmonics is described
harmonics
and
andititisisdescribed
describedby byEquation
Equation(4).(4).The
Thecurrent
currentcurves
curvesare
arepresented
presentedininFigure
Figure11.
11.The
Thecomparison
comparisonofof
obtained
obtainedcurves
curveswith
withthose
thosegiven
givenininFigure
Figure5,5,shows
showsthat
thatemployment
employmentofofthe thePIPIcontroller
controllerwith
withthe
the
variable
variableproportional
proportionalconstant
constantallows
allowsusustotoreduce
reducethethehigh
highfrequency
frequencyripples
ripplesasascompared
comparedtotothe the
case
casewhen
whenthe theordinary
ordinaryPIPIcontroller
controllerisisused.
used.
Symmetry 2020, 12, 112 9 of 13

by Equation (4). The current curves are presented in Figure 11. The comparison of obtained curves
with those given in Figure 5, shows that employment of the PI controller with the variable proportional
constant allows us to reduce the high frequency ripples as compared to the case when the ordinary PI
controller
Symmetry is used.
Symmetry 2020,
2020, 12,
12, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 99 of
of 13
13

(a)
(a) (b)
(b) (c)
(c)
Figure
Figure 11. The
11. The
Figure11. microinverter
The microinverter output
microinverter output current
output current (black curves)
current (black curves) when
when using
using the
the PI
PI controller
controller with
with the
the
variable
variable proportional
variableproportional constant
proportionalconstant at
constant at different
at different load
different load power:
power: (a) 32 W, (b) 62 W; (c) 97 W. The electric grid
load power: (a) 32 W, (b) 62 W; (c) 97 W. The electric grid
voltage
voltage (red
voltage(red curves)
curves)isis
(redcurves) distorted
isdistorted by
distortedby the
bythe 3rd
the3rd and
3rdand 5th
and5th harmonics.
5thharmonics.
harmonics.

The
The microinverter
Themicroinverter output
microinverter output current
output current spectra
current spectra
spectra areare presented
are presented
presented in in Figure
in Figure 12.
12. Using
Figure 12. Using the
Using the data
the data given
data given in
given in
in
spectra,
spectra, itit can
can bebe estimated
estimated that
that thethe
THDTHD of of
thethe output
output current
current is is
9.2%9.2%
at 32at 32
W,
spectra, it can be estimated that the THD of the output current is 9.2% at 32 W, 6.0% at 62 W, and W,
6.0% 6.0%
at 62at
W,62 W,
and and
4.5%
4.5%
at
4.5% at
97 W 97
97 W
at load load
load power.
Wpower. Comparison
Comparison
power. Comparison of
of obtained
of obtained THDTHD
obtained values
values
THD withwith
values thesethese
with received
received
these for
for the
received the
the case
for case when
case when
the
when
the ordinary
ordinary PI PI controller
controller is usedis used
shows shows
that that employment
employment of the of the
proposed proposed
PI PI
controller
the ordinary PI controller is used shows that employment of the proposed PI controller with the controller
with the with the
variable
variable
variable proportional
proportional constant constant
proportional allows usallows
constant us
us to
to reduce
allows reduce
tothe THD
reduce the
ofTHD
the of
of microinverter
microinverter
THD outputoutput
microinverter currentcurrent
output by 7%by
current at 7%
by at
32 W,
7% at
32
by W,
W, by
3233% byat 33%
62 W,at
33% 62
62 W,
atand by and
W, 26%by
and at 26%
by 97 Wat
26% 97
97 W
atload W load
load power.
power. power.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b) (c)
(c)
Figure 12.
Figure12.
Figure The
12.The spectra
Thespectra
spectraofof the
ofthe output
theoutput current
output current of
current of the
of the microinverter
the microinverter based
microinverter based on the
based on the PI
PI controller
controller with
with the
the
variable
variable proportional
proportional constant
constant at
at the
the load
load
variable proportional constant at the load power:power:
power: (a)
(a) 32
32 W;
W; (b)
(b) 62
62 W;
W; (c)
(c) 97
97 W
W for
for the
the electric
electric grid
grid
voltage distorted
voltagedistorted
voltage by
distortedby the
bythe third-
thethird- and
third-and fifth-order
andfifth-order harmonics.
fifth-orderharmonics.
harmonics.

The
The experimental
Theexperimental
experimental investigation
investigation
investigation of
of the the
the proposed
of proposed controller
controller
proposed using it using
controller it
it in
in the single
using the
the single
in stage stage
photovoltaic
single stage
photovoltaic
grid-connected grid-connected
microinverter based
photovoltaic grid-connected microinverter based
on a couple of
microinverter on
two-switch
based a couple
on a DC-DC of
couple flyback two-switch
convertersDC-DC
of two-switch DC-DC flyback
was performed.
flyback
converters
The was
was performed.
circuit diagram
converters The
The circuit
circuit diagram
of the microinverter
performed. of
of the
output stage
diagram theismicroinverter
given in Figure
microinverter output
1. The
output stage
types
stage is given
is and
given in
in Figure
parameters
Figure
1.
of The types
1. transistors and
The types and parameters
and parameters of
diodes usedofin transistors
the output
transistors and diodes
stage
and used
of the
diodes used in the
experimental output
in the output stage
model
stageare of the
given
of the experimental
in Table 2.
experimental
model
The
model are
are given
parameters
givenofin Table
flyback
in 2.
2. The
The parameters
Tabletransformer and CLof
parameters flyback
filter
of transformer
are presented
flyback transformer and
and CL
in Table 1. The
CL filter are
are presented
control
filter system was
presented in
in
Table 1.
implemented The control
using system
digital was
signal implemented
controller using digital
dsPIC33FJ16GS504. signal controller
The dsPIC33FJ16GS504.
experimentally
Table 1. The control system was implemented using digital signal controller dsPIC33FJ16GS504. The obtained The
current
experimentally
curves
experimentally obtained
for the cases whencurrent
obtained curves
the proposed
current curves PI for the
the cases
forcontroller when
caseswith
when thethe proposed
variable
the proposed PI
PI controller
proportional
controller with
constant the
with and
the
variable proportional constant and conventional PI controller were used are
variable proportional constant and conventional PI controller were used are given in Figure 13. The given in Figure 13. The
investigation
investigation was was performed
performed at at the
the 600
600 mAmA output
output current
current amplitude.
amplitude. It It is
is seen
seen thatthat the
the control
control
system
system based on the proposed controller provides lover ripples of the current as compared to
based on the proposed controller provides lover ripples of the current as compared to the
the
case
case when the ordinary PI controller is used. The high frequency ripples that appear on the
when the ordinary PI controller is used. The high frequency ripples that appear on the
experimentally obtained microinverter output current curves and are not observed
experimentally obtained microinverter output current curves and are not observed in the simulated in the simulated
Symmetry 2020, 12, 112 10 of 13

conventional PI controller were used are given in Figure 13. The investigation was performed at the
600 mA output current amplitude. It is seen that the control system based on the proposed controller
provides lover ripples of the current as compared to the case when the ordinary PI controller is used.
The high 2020,
Symmetry frequency ripples
12, x FOR that appear on the experimentally obtained microinverter output10
PEER REVIEW current
of 13
curves and are not observed in the simulated curves are caused by the measurement noise, which
isgenerated
introduced by bytheelectromagnetic
output stage of disturbances
the microinverter. The voltage
generated shape ofstage
by the output the investigated electric
of the microinverter.
gridvoltage
The (red curves
shapeinofFigure 13) is slightly
the investigated distorted
electric by the
grid (red nonlinear
curves grid 13)
in Figure loads.
is slightly distorted by the
nonlinear grid loads.
Table 2. Types and parameters of transistors and diodes used in the output stage of the
microinverter
Table experimental
2. Types and model.
parameters of transistors and diodes used in the output stage of the microinverter
experimental model. Component Type Parameters
Q1, Q2,
Component Q3, Q4 IRF3205
Type 55 Parameters
V; 110 A
Q5, Q6 2SK2717 900 V; 5 A
Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4 IRF3205 55 V; 110 A
D1, D2
Q5, Q6 FUF5408
2SK2717 1000 V;V;3 5AA
900
D1, D2 FUF5408 1000 V; 3 A

(a) (b)
Figure13.
Figure 13.The
Themicroinverter
microinverter output
output current (black curves)
curves) when
when using
usingthe
theordinary
ordinaryPI
PIcontroller
controller(a)
(a)
and the PI controller with the variable proportional constant
and the PI controller with the variable proportional constant (b). Red curves represent the electric
Red curves represent the electric
gridvoltage.
grid voltage.

There
Thereare
arelots
lotsof
oftopologies
topologiesused
used for
for the
the realization
realization of microinverters.
microinverters. TheThepurpose
purposeofofthis
thiswork
work
was
wastoto
develop
develop andand
to investigate the controller
to investigate for thefor
the controller grid-connected microinverter
the grid-connected with thewith
microinverter topology
the
topology
based on a based
coupleon of atwo-switch
couple of two-switch
DC–DC flyback DC–DC flyback[36],
converters converters [36], previously
which was which wasproposed
previouslyby
proposed
the authorsby the authors
of this of this paper.
paper. Therefore, it canTherefore,
be stated itthat
canthe
beproposed
stated that the proposed
controller controller
with the with
proportional
the proportional
constant that variesconstant thatasvaries
by the law shownbybythe law as(6)
Equation shown by Equation
is suitable (6) is suitable
for microinverters for
with this
microinverters with this particular topology. The investigation of the controller applicability
particular topology. The investigation of the controller applicability for the microinveters with the for the
microinveters
other topologieswith
wasthe other the
beyond topologies
scope ofwas thisbeyond
work. the scope of this work.

6.6.Conclusions
Conclusions
1.1. The
Themost
mostpopular
popular controllers used
controllers for for
used tracking of the
tracking ofgrid-connected photovoltaic
the grid-connected inverter
photovoltaic output
inverter
output in
current current in the industrial
the industrial microinverters
microinverters are PID
are PI and PI and PID controllers.
controllers.
2.2. Thedistortions
The distortions ofof the
the grid-connected
grid-connected microinverter
microinverter output
output current
current shape
shapecan
canbe
bereduced
reducedwhen
when
theproportional
the proportional constant
constant of the PI controller during every every half
half period
period of
ofthe
thecurrent
currentchanges
changesinin
timewith
time with the
the current
current byby the
the similar
similar law.
law.
3.3. The variation of the proportional constant in
The variation of the proportional constant in the
the proposed
proposed modification
modificationof ofthe
thePI
PIcontroller
controllerisis
realized by the introduction of the time-varying term, which varies according
realized by the introduction of the time-varying term, which varies according to the law to presented
the law
presented
by by the linear
the piecewise piecewise linear approximation
approximation of the sinus.
of the sinus.
4. The employment of the proposed PI controller with the variable proportional constant for
tracking of the grid-connected photovoltaic microinverter output current instead of the
ordinary PI controller allows us to reduce the THD of the output current by 30% at 32 W, by
48% at 62 W, and by 40% at 97 W load power when the electric grid voltage has a pure sinus
shape and by 7% at 32 W, by 33% at 62 W and by 26% at 97 W—in the case when the grid
Symmetry 2020, 12, 112 11 of 13

4. The employment of the proposed PI controller with the variable proportional constant for tracking
of the grid-connected photovoltaic microinverter output current instead of the ordinary PI
controller allows us to reduce the THD of the output current by 30% at 32 W, by 48% at 62 W,
and by 40% at 97 W load power when the electric grid voltage has a pure sinus shape and by 7%
at 32 W, by 33% at 62 W and by 26% at 97 W—in the case when the grid voltage is distorted by
the third- and fifth-order harmonics.
5. The experimental investigation results prove the superiority of the PI controller with the variable
proportional constant over the ordinary PI controller.
6. The implementation of the proposed controller is more complicated as compared to the ordinary
PI controller because the proportional constant in the proposed controller varies in time according
to a certain law.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.B.; Investigation, E.B. and A.B.; Methodology, E.B.; Writing—review
& editing, G.V. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Meneses, D.; Blaabjerg, F.; García, Ó.; Cobos, J.A. Review and Comparison of Step-Up Transformerless
Topologies for Photovoltaic AC-Module Application. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2013, 28, 2649–2663.
[CrossRef]
2. Caiza, D.L.; Kouro, S.; Flores-Bahamonde, F.; Hernandez, R. Unfolding PV Microinverter Current Control:
Rectified Sinusoidal vs Sinusoidal Reference Waveform. In Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE Energy Conversion
Congress and Exposition, Portland, OR, USA, 23–27 September 2018; ISBN 978-1-4799-7312-5. [CrossRef]
3. Yongjun, L.; Shun, W.; Jing, L.; Chen, C.; Weiliang, L. Grid-connected current control of micro inverter
based on ANN inverse model. In Proceedings of the 2017 29th Chinese Control and Decision Conference,
Chongqing, China, 28–30 May 2017; ISBN 978-1-5090-4657-7. [CrossRef]
4. Kojabadi, H.M.; Yu, B.; Gadoura, I.A.; Chang, L.; Ghribi, M. A novel DSP-based current-controlled PWM
strategy for single phase grid connected inverters. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2006, 21, 985–993. [CrossRef]
5. Nan, W.; Shangsheng, L. Current output control strategy based on current reference feed-forward for H-bridge
cascaded inverter. In Proceedings of the IECON 2017—43rd Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial
Electronics Society, Beijing, China, 29 October–1 November 2017; ISBN 978-1-5386-1127-2. [CrossRef]
6. Suzuki, K.E.; Wada, K. Current Control using Pulsed Current Sampling Considering Sampling Points and
Sensor Positions for Single-Phase Inverter. In Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE Applied Power Electronics
Conference and Exposition (APEC), Anaheim, CA, USA, 17–21 March 2019; ISBN 978-1-5386-8330-9.
[CrossRef]
7. Xia, Y.; Ayyanar, R. Naturally Adaptive, Low-Loss Zero-Voltage-Transition Circuit for High-Frequency
Full-Bridge Inverters with Hybrid PWM Grid-Tied Inverter. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2017, 33, 4916–4933.
[CrossRef]
8. Na, T.; Zhang, Q.; Tang, J.; Wang, J. Active power filter for single-phase Quasi-Z-source integrated on-board
charger. CPSS Trans. Power Electron. Appl. 2018, 3, 197–201. [CrossRef]
9. Wang, R.N.; Hu, B.; Sun, S. Linear Active Disturbance Rejection Control for DC Side Voltage of Single-Phase
Active Power Filters. IEEE Access 2019, 7, 73095–73105. [CrossRef]
10. Popescu, M.; Bitoleanu, A.; Preda, A. A New Design Method of an LCL Filter Applied in Active DC-Traction
Substations. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 2018, 55, 3497–3507. [CrossRef]
11. Motta, L.; Faúndes, N. Active/passive harmonic filters: Applications, challenges & trends. In Proceedings of
the 17th International Conference on Harmonics and Quality of Power (ICHQP), Belo Horizonte, Brazil,
16–19 October 2016. [CrossRef]
12. Lee, T.-L.; Hu, S.-H. An Active Filter With Resonant Current Control to Suppress Harmonic Resonance in a
Distribution Power System. IEEE J. Emerg. Sel. Top. Power Electron. 2016, 4, 198–209. [CrossRef]
Symmetry 2020, 12, 112 12 of 13

13. Nora, D.; Francisco, G.M.; Najib, A.; Yacine, D. A Hybrid Active Filter Using the Backstepping Controller for
Harmonic Current Compensation. Symmetry 2019, 11, 1161. [CrossRef]
14. Kazmierkowski, M.P.; Malesani, L. Current control techniques for three-phase voltage-source PWM converters:
A survey. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 1998, 45, 691–703. [CrossRef]
15. Rajeev, M.; Agarwal, V. Analysis and Control of a Novel Transformer-Less Microinverter for PV-Grid Interface.
IEEE J. Photovolt. 2018, 8, 1110–1118. [CrossRef]
16. Xin, Z.; Mattavelli, P.; Yao, W. Mitigation of Grid-Current Distortion for LCL-Filtered Voltage-Source Inverter
with Inverter-Current Feedback Control. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2017, 33, 6248–6261. [CrossRef]
17. Bayhan, S.; Seyedalipour, S.S.; Komurcugil, H.; Abu-Rub, H. Lyapunov Energy Function Based Control
Method for Three-Phase UPS Inverters with Output Voltage Feedback Loops. IEEE Access 2019,
7, 113699–113711. [CrossRef]
18. Zha, Z.; Yang, J.; Li, S. Continuous Output Feedback TSM Control for Uncertain Systems With a DC–AC
Inverter Example. IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Express Briefs 2017, 65, 71–75. [CrossRef]
19. Dash, P.P.; Kazeran, M. Dynamic Modeling and Performance Analysis of a Grid-Connected Current-Source
Inverter-Based Photovoltaic System. IEEE Trans. Sustain. Energy 2011, 2, 71–75. [CrossRef]
20. Kamil, M. Grid-Connected Solar Microinverter Reference Design Using a dsPIC Digital Signal Controller.
Available online: http://ww1.microchip.com/downloads/en/appnotes/pv_appnotes.pdf (accessed on 9
December 2019).
21. Gazoli1, J.R.; Villalva, M.G.; Ruppert, E. Micro-inverter for integrated grid-tie photovoltaic module using
resonant controller. In Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE Power and Energy Society General Meeting, San Diego,
CA, USA, 22–26 July 2012; ISBN 978-1-4673-2729-9. [CrossRef]
22. Hlali, M.; Bahri, I.; Belloumi, H.; Kourda, F. Comparative analysis of PI and PR based Current Controllers
for Grid Connected Photovoltaic Micro-inverters. In Proceedings of the 2019 10th International Renewable
Energy Congress, Sousse, Tunisia, 26–28 March 2019; ISBN 978-1-7281-0140-8. [CrossRef]
23. Sahu, P.K.; Shaw, P.; Maity, S. Modeling and control of grid-connected DC/AC converters for single-phase
micro-inverter application. In Proceedings of the 2015 Annual IEEE India Conference, New Delhi, India,
17–19 December 2015; ISBN 978-1-4673-7399-9. [CrossRef]
24. Kim, H.; Yu, T.; Choi, S. Indirect Current Control Algorithm for Utility Interactive Inverters in Distributed
Generation Systems. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2008, 23, 1342–1347. [CrossRef]
25. Hassan, M.A.; Abido, M.A. Optimal Design of Microgrids in Autonomous and Grid-Connected Modes
Using Particle Swarm Optimization. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2011, 26, 755–769. [CrossRef]
26. Liu, C.; Zhang, H.-C. Photovoltaic Grid-connected Micro-inverter Based on Self-tuning Fuzzy-PI Controller.
Adv. Mater. Res. 2014, 986, 1098–1102. [CrossRef]
27. Wang, T.H.; Lo, Y.K. A DSP-based Grid-tied Solar Cascade-micra-inverter. In Proceedings of the
2013 1st International Future Energy Electronics Conference, Tainan, Taiwan, 3–6 November 2013;
ISBN 978-1-4799-0073-2. [CrossRef]
28. Melo, F.O.C.; Garcia, L.S.; De Freitas, L.C.; Coelho, E.A.A. Proposal of a Photovoltaic AC-Module with
a Single-Stage Transformerless Grid-Connected Boost Microinverter. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2017,
65, 2289–2301. [CrossRef]
29. Rodriguez, C.T.; Fuente, D.V.; Garcera, G. Reconfigurable Control Scheme for a PV Microinverter Working in
Both Grid-Connected and Island Modes. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2011, 60, 1582–1595. [CrossRef]
30. Shen, G.; Zhu, X.; Zhang, J.; Xu, D. A New Feedback Method for PR Current Control of LCL-Filter-Based
Grid-Connected Inverter. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2010, 57, 2033–2041. [CrossRef]
31. Liserre, M.; Teodorescu, R.; Blaabjerg, F. Stability of photovoltaic and wind turbine grid-connected inverters
for a large set of grid impedance values. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2006, 21, 263–272. [CrossRef]
32. Zhang, N.; Tang, H.; Yao, C. A Systematic Method for Designing a PR Controller and Active Damping of the
LCL Filter for Single-Phase Grid-Connected PV Inverters. Energies 2014, 7, 3934–3954. [CrossRef]
33. Bode, G.H.; Loh, P.C.; Newman, M.J.; Holmes, D.G. An improved robust predictive current regulation
algorithm. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 2005, 41, 1720–1733. [CrossRef]
34. Mario, L.R.; Juan, G.; Francisco, V.M.F. Interactive Tuning Tool of Proportional-Integral Controllers for First
Order Plus Time Delay Processes. Symmetry 2018, 10, 569. [CrossRef]
Symmetry 2020, 12, 112 13 of 13

35. Jayalath, S.; Hanif, M. Controller tuning for a single phase grid-connected current source inverter.
In Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE 2nd International Future Energy Electronics Conference, Taipei, Taiwan, 1–4
November 2015; ISBN 978-1-4799-7657-7. [CrossRef]
36. Bielskis, E.; Baskys, A.; Sapurov, M. Single Stage Microinverter Based on Two-Switch DC-DC Flyback
Converter. Elektronika ir Elektrotechnika 2017, 23, 29–32. [CrossRef]
37. Bielskis, E.; Baskys, A.; Sapurov, M. Impact of Transformer Design on Flyback Converter Voltage Spikes.
Elektronika ir Elektrotechnika 2016, 22, 58–61. [CrossRef]
38. Singh, B.; Joshi, N. Tuning Techniques of PID controller: A review. Int. J. Emerg. Technol. 2017, 8, 481–485.
39. Al-Saleh, M.A.; Mir, M. A modified univariate search algorithm. In Proceedings of the 1999 IEEE International
Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Orlando, FL, USA, 30 May–2 June 1999; ISBN 0-7803-5471-0. [CrossRef]
40. Wilson, P.; Mantooth, H.A. Model-Based Engineering for Complex Electronic Systems; Newnes: Kidlington, UK,
2013; pp. 347–367.

© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).