Computer Organization And Assembly

Language
Presentation

Instructor:
Sir Ilya’s Yuns.

Slot:
Wednesday (11:45Am to 2:45Pm)

Be (elect)roup Members:
1 Ali Arish

2 Burhan Ahmed
3 Adnan faiz
FLASH MEMORY:
Flash memory is a type of non-volatile computer storage that retains data even when there is no power
applied to the device. Some common uses of flash memory include solid-state drives (SSDs) for data
storage, USB flash drives, and memory cards for cameras and mobile devices.

Advantages of flash memory:

Fast read and write speeds
Resistant to physical shock and vibration
Low power consumption
Small form factor
Lightweight

Disadvantages of flash memory:

Limited write endurance (number of write cycles before the device fails)
Higher cost per GB compared to traditional hard drives Limited capacity compared to traditional hard
drives

COMPONENTS:
A basic flash memory circuit can consist of the following components:

Memory array: This is where the actual data is stored and is made up of memory cells arranged in a
grid.

Control logic: This controls the flow of data to and from the memory array and performs tasks such as
reading, writing, and erasing data.

Input/output (I/O) circuits: These are responsible for communicating with the host device, such as a
computer or mobile phone, to receive read and write commands and return data.

Address decoder: This decodes the memory address sent by the host device to determine the location in
the memory array to be read or written.
Voltage regulators: These provide the necessary voltage levels required by the flash memory circuit.

Error Correction Code logic: This performs error correction on the data stored in the memory array to
ensure data integrity.
FLASH MEMORY CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

The hard disk drive (HDD), a kind of electro-mechanical data storage device,
utilizes magnetic storage to save and retrieve digital data. It was released by IBM
in 1956 and called the IBM 350 disk storage unit in the very beginning.
HDDs are usually installed inside desktop computers, mobile devices, consumer
electronics and enterprise storage arrays in data centers. They can store operating
systems, software programs and other files using magnetic disks. More
specifically, hard disk drives control the reading and writing of the hard disk that
provides data storage. HDDs are used either as the primary or secondary storage
device in a computer. They are commonly found in the
drive bay and are connected to the motherboard via an Advanced Technology
Attachment (ATA), Serial ATA, parallel ATA or Small Computer System
Interface (SCSI) cable, among other formats. The HDD is also connected to a
power supply unit and can keep stored data while powered down.

The Main Parts of a Hard Drive.

The hard disk drive is made from multiple parts. Even if there are various hard
drive shapes and sizes, the essential parts and function of the hard drive are still
the same with the old one. Now, let’s introduce them one by one.

Actuator
Actuator Axis Platter Spindle (Disk driving motor)

Actuator Arm Read/Write head

• Platters: These are the circular, rigid disks coated with a magnetic material.
Data is stored on these platters in the form of magnetic patterns.
• Read/Write Heads: Each platter has two read/write heads—one for the top
surface and one for the bottom. These heads are responsible for reading
data from or writing data to the platters.
• Actuator Assembly: The actuator assembly includes an actuator arm and a
voice coil motor. The actuator arm holds the read/write heads and moves
them across the platters' surfaces. The voice coil motor controls the
movement of the actuator arm.
 • Spindle Motor: The spindle motor spins the platters at a high speed. The
platters are mounted on a spindle, and the rotation speed is measured in
revolutions per minute (RPM).
• Controller Board: The controller board contains the electronics and
firmware that control the overall operation of the hard disk drive. It
manages data transfer, error correction, and other functions.

Working:
> Power-on and Initialization: When the hard disk receives power, the internal
components start initializing. The spindle motor spins the platters to the desired
speed, and the actuator arm moves the read/write heads to a predefined position.
> Data Reading and Writing:When a read or write operation is requested by the
computer's operating system, the controller board sends signals to move the
actuator arm to the correct location. The read/write heads then position themselves
over the desired track on the platter. To read data, the heads detect the magnetic
patterns on the platter, converting them into electrical signals. To write data, the
heads generate magnetic fields to imprint the data onto the platter.
> Data Access and Transfer: Once the data is read or written, it is processed by
the controller board. It performs error correction and other necessary operations.
The data is then sent to or received from the computer through the disk interface.
 OPTICAL DISK:
An optical disk is an electronic data storage medium that can be written to and
read from using a low-powered laser beam. Most of today's optical disks are
available in three formats: compact disks (CDs), digital versatile disks (DVDs) --
also referred to as digital video disks -- and Blu-ray disks, which provide the
highest capacities and data transfer rates of the three.

An optical disc is made mainly of polycarbonate (a plastic). The data is stored on a

layer inside the polycarbonate. The data layer reflects the laser light back to a
sensor.

To read the data on a disc, laser light shines through the polycarbonate and hits the
data layer. How the laser light is reflected or absorbed is read as a 1 or a 0 by the
computer.

In a CD or Blu-ray disc, the data layer is near the top of the disc, the label side.
In a DVD the data layer is in the middle of the disc. A DVD can actually have data
in two layers. It can access the data from one side or from both sides. This is how a
double-sided, double-layered DVD can hold 4 times the data that a single-sided,
single-layered DVD can.
Blu-ray discs can have 3 or even 4 layers of data.

Materials:

The materials used for the data (recording) and metal (reflecting) layers
are different for different kinds of optical discs.

T
ype Data Layer Metal Layer

Read Only (commercial Molded

Aluminum
discs)
(Also silicon, silver, or gold in doublelayered
DVDs)
Recordable (once!) Silver, gold, silver alloy

Organic dye (except M discs)

Phase-changing metal alloy Aluminum

Rewritable (write, erase, film

write again)

Write:
The discs that are commercially produced are of the Write Once Read Many
(WORM) variety. They can't be changed once they are created. The data layer is
physically molded into the polycarbonate. Pits (depressions) and lands
(surfaces) form the digital data. A metal coating (usually aluminum) reflects the
laser light back to the sensor.

The optical discs that you can write to from your own computer are CD-R, DVD-
R, DVD+R, BD-R, and M discs, called writable or recordable discs.
Rewrite:

An option for backup storage of changing data is rewritable or erasable discs,

CD-RW, DVD-RW, DVD+RW, DVD+RAM, BD-RE. M discs do not come in a
rewritable type. [May 2014]
Speed of optical drives
Spins with the speed of about 200rpm - 4000 rpm,

You might have noticed that DVD writers or Blu-Ray drives are marked with 4x,
16x, or 32x. These are the speed capacities of optical drives. Typically, 16x
means the optical drive can work at 16 times the speed of the base speed.

working of optical disk :

> Data Reading: When reading data from an optical disc, the laser diode emits a
focused laser beam onto the disc's surface. The laser beam interacts with the pits
and lands on the disc, which represent the encoded data. The reflected light is
collected by the photodiode, which converts it into electrical signals.
 > Data Writing: When writing data to an optical disc, the laser diode emits a
higher-intensity laser beam onto a dye layer or a phase-change material
on the disc's surface. This alters the properties of the dye or material,
creating pits and lands that represent the encoded data.

> Data Access and Transfer: The electrical signals obtained from the
photodiode during data reading or writing are processed by the internal
circuitry. The controller board manages error correction, data buffering,
and data transfer between the optical disc drive and the computer's memory
via the interface (e.g., SATA or USB).

Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID)

Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID) is a data storage technology that

combines multiple physical disk drives into a single logical unit to provide
improved performance, data redundancy, or a combination of both. Here's an
overview of working of RAID:
Working of RAID:
• RAID 0 (Striping): RAID 0 provides improved performance by distributing data
across multiple drives. Data is divided into small blocks and written across the
drives simultaneously. This allows for parallel data access and faster read/write
speeds. However, RAID 0 does not offer redundancy, so if one drive fails, data
loss can occur.

RAID 0

Disk 0 Disk 1
 • RAID 1 (Mirroring): RAID 1 provides data redundancy by creating an exact
copy (mirror) of each disk onto a separate disk. Data is written
simultaneously to both disks, ensuring that if one drive fails, the data can
still be accessed from the mirrored drive. RAID 1 provides data redundancy
but does not offer improved performance.

RAID 1
^ A1 ^
^_A2__
,-_A2__y ^
V__A3__
^ A3

Disk 0 Disk 1

• RAID 5 (Striping with Parity): RAID 5 combines striping and parity to

achieve both improved performance and data redundancy. Data and parity
information are spread across multiple drives. Parity information allows
for data recovery in case of a single drive failure. RAID 5 requires a
minimum of three drives to operate.

• RAID 10 (Striping and Mirroring): RAID 10 combines striping and

mirroring. It requires a minimum of four drives. Data is striped across
mirrored pairs of drives, providing both improved performance and
redundancy. RAID 10 offers better performance and fault tolerance
but requires a larger number of drives.

RAID Example Question Solve:

 Given a RAID 5 setup with 4 disks, each with a capacity of 2 TB, what is
the total usable storage capacity and what is the amount of disk space used for data
redundancy?
Solution:

The usable storage capacity in a RAID 5 setup is equal to (n-1) * disk

capacity, where n is the number of disks. In this case, n = 4, so the usable storage
capacity is (4-1) * 2 TB = 6 TB.
Amount of disk space used for data redundancy: In RAID 5, data is striped
across all disks and parity information is written to one disk. Parity information is
used to rebuild data in case of disk failure. In this case, 1 disk out of 4 is used for
writing parity information, so the amount of disk space used for data redundancy is
2 TB.