19CS697 -

Wireless Networks
Unit I - INTRODUCTION

Dr.S.Kavi Priya
urskavi@mepcoeng.ac.in
9842295563
Introduction
Wireless Comes of Age
 Guglielmo Marconi invented the wireless
telegraph in 1896
 Communication by encoding alphanumeric characters in
analog signal
 Sent telegraphic signals across the Atlantic Ocean
 Communications satellites launched in 1960s
 Advances in wireless technology
 Radio, television, mobile telephone, communication
satellites
 More recently
 Satellite communications, wireless networking, cellular
technology, ad hoc networks, Sensor networks
Broadband Wireless Technology
 Higher data rates obtainable with broadband
wireless technology
 Graphics, video, audio
 Shares same advantages of all wireless services:
convenience and reduced cost
 Service can be deployed faster than fixed service
 No cost of cable plant
 Service is mobile, deployed almost anywhere
 Future Generations
4G Other Tradeoffs:
Rate Rate vs. Coverage
802.11n Rate vs. Delay
3G Rate vs. Cost
Rate vs. Energy
802.11b WLAN
2G

Wimax/3G

2G Cellular

Mobility

Fundamental Design Breakthroughs Needed

 Evolution of Current Systems
 Wireless systems today
 3G Cellular: ~200-300 Kbps.
 WLANs: ~450 Mbps (and growing).
 Next Generation is in the works
 4G Cellular: Likely OFDM/MIMO
 4G WLANs: Wide open, 3G just being finalized

 Technology Enhancements
 Hardware: Better batteries, Better circuits/processors.
 Link: Antennas, modulation, coding, adaptivity, DSP, BW.
 Network: more efficient resource allocation
Application Application

Transport Transport

Network Network Network Network

Data Link Data Link Data Link Data Link

Physical Physical Physical Physical

Radio Medium
 Wireless communication systems
 Target information systems: “Anytime, Anywhere,
Anyform”
 Applications: Ubiquitous computing and information

access
 Market in continuous growth:
 35-60% annual growth of PCS (Personal Communications Services)
 Number of subscribers:
 by 2001: over 700M mobile phones
 by 2003: 1 billion wireless subscribers (source Ericsson)
 300% growth in wireless data from 1995-1997
 Large diversity of standards and products
 Confusing terminology
Limitations and Difficulties of
Wireless Technologies
 Wireless is convenient and less expensive
 Limitations and political and technical difficulties
inhibit wireless technologies
 Lack of an industry-wide standard
 Device limitations
 E.g., small LCD on a mobile telephone can only
displaying a few lines of text
 E.g., browsers of most mobile wireless devices use
wireless markup language (WML) instead of HTML
Wireless around us…

WLAN, DAB, GSM,

etc…

Personal Travel Assistant,

PDA, Laptop, GSM, cdmaOne
WLAN, Bluetooth, ...
 Radio frequency spectrum

 Wireless technologies have gradually migrated

to higher frequencies
 Wireless & Mobility
 Wireless:
 Limited bandwidth
 Broadcast medium: requires multiple access schemes
 Variable link quality (noise, interference)
 High latency, higher jitter
 Heterogeneous air interfaces
 Security: easier snooping
 Mobility:
 User location may change with time
 Speed of mobile impacts wireless bandwidth
 Need mechanism for handoff
 Security: easier spoofing
 Portability
 Limited battery, storage, computing, and GUI
 Challenges in Mobile Networking

 Three major challenges:

 Wireless Channel
 Mobility

 Device Limitation
Transmission Fundamentals
Electromagnetic Signal
 Function of time
 Can also be expressed as a function of
frequency
 Signal consists of components of different
frequencies
Time-Domain Concepts
 Analog signal - signal intensity varies in a smooth
fashion over time
 No breaks or discontinuities in the signal
 Digital signal - signal intensity maintains a
constant level for some period of time and then
changes to another constant level
 Example: The analog signal might represent speech,
and the digital signal might represent binary 1s and 0s.
Time-Domain Concepts
Time-Domain Concepts
 Periodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern that
repeats over time
 s(t +T ) = s(t ) -< t < +where T is the period of the signal

 Aperiodic signal - analog or digital signal

pattern that doesn't repeat over time
Time-Domain Concepts
Sine wave parameters
Peak amplitude (A) - maximum value or
strength of the signal over time; typically
measured in volts
Frequency (f )
 Rate, in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz) at
which the signal repeats
Time-Domain Concepts
 Period (T ) - amount of time it takes for one
repetition of the signal
 T = 1/f
 Phase () - measure of the relative position in
time within a single period of a signal
 Wavelength () - distance occupied by a single
cycle of the signal
 Or, the distance between two points of corresponding
phase of two consecutive cycles
Time-Domain Concepts
 Assume that the signal is traveling with a velocity
v. Then the wavelength is related to the period as
follows:
λ = vT. Equivalently, λ f = v
 Of particular relevance to this discussion is the
case where v = c, the speed of light in free space,
which is approximately 3 * 108 m/s.
Sine Wave Parameters
 General sine wave
 s(t ) = A sin(2ft + ) (called as sinusoid)
 Figure 2.3 shows the effect of varying each of the
three parameters
 (a) A = 1, f = 1 Hz,  = 0; thus T = 1s
 (b) Reduced peak amplitude; A=0.5
 (c) Increased frequency; f = 2, thus T = ½
 (d) Phase shift;  = /4 radians (45 degrees)
 note: 2 radians = 360° = 1 period
Sine Wave Parameters
Time vs. Distance
 When the horizontal axis is time, as in Figure 2.3,
graphs display the value of a signal at a given
point in space as a function of time
 With the horizontal axis in space, graphs display
the value of a signal at a given point in time as a
function of distance
 At a particular instant of time, the intensity of the signal
varies as a function of distance from the source
 Frequency-Domain Concepts
 An electromagnetic
signal will be made
up of many
frequencies
 For example, the

signal
s(t) = (4/p) * (sin(2pft)
+ (1/3) sin (2p(3f )t))
is shown in Figure
Frequency-Domain Concepts
 Fundamental frequency – In figure, the second
frequency is an integer multiple of the first
frequency. When all frequency components of a
signal are integer multiples of one frequency, it’s
referred to as the fundamental frequency
 The other components are called harmonics
 The period of the total signal is equal to the period
of the fundamental frequency. The period of the
component sin(2pft) is T = 1/f, and the period of
s(t) is also T, as can be seen from Figure 2.4c.
 Frequency-Domain Concepts
 Spectrum - range of frequencies that a signal contains.
For the signal of Figure 2.4c, the spectrum extends from f
to 3f
 Absolute bandwidth - width of the spectrum of a signal.
In the case of Figure 2.4c, the bandwidth is 3f - f = 2f
 Many signals have an infinite bandwidth
 Effective bandwidth (or just bandwidth) - narrow band
of frequencies that most of the signal’s energy is
contained in
 Any electromagnetic signal can be shown to consist of a collection
of periodic analog signals (sine waves) at different amplitudes,
frequencies, and phases
Relationship between Data Rate
and Bandwidth
 The greater the bandwidth, the higher the
information-carrying capacity
 Consider the square wave, let a positive pulse
represent binary 0 and a negative pulse represent
binary 1, Then the waveform represents the binary
stream 0101. . . .
 The duration of each pulse is 1/(2f ); thus the data
rate is 2f bits per second (bps)
 Relationship between Data Rate
and Bandwidth
 What are the frequency components of this signal? To answer this question, consider again
Figure 2.4.
 By adding together sine waves at frequencies f and 3f, we get a waveform that begins to
resemble the square wave.
 Let us continue this process by adding a sine wave of frequency 5f, as shown in Figure
2.5a, and then adding a sine wave of frequency 7f, shown in Figure 2.5b.
 As we add additional odd multiples of f, suitably scaled, the resulting waveform
approaches that of a square wave more and more closely.
 Indeed, it can be shown that the frequency components of the square wave with
amplitudes A and -A can be expressed as follows:

 This waveform has an infinite number of frequency components and hence an infinite
bandwidth.
 Relationship between Data Rate
and Bandwidth
Case I: Bandwidth
= 4 MHz; data rate
= 2 Mbps
•Case II:
Bandwidth = 8
MHz; data rate = 4
Mbps
•Case III:
Bandwidth = 4
MHz; data rate = 4
Mbps
Relationship between Data Rate
and Bandwidth
 Relationship between Data Rate
and Bandwidth
Case III. Now suppose that the waveform of Figure 2.4c is
considered adequate for approximating a square wave. That is,
the difference between a positive and negative pulse in Figure
2.4c is sufficiently distinct that the waveform can be used
successfully to represent a sequence of 1s and 0s. Assume as in
Case II that f = 2 MHz and T = 1/ f = 0 .5 ms , so that one bit
occurs every 0.25 ms for a data rate of 4 Mbps. Using the
waveform of Figure 2.4c, the bandwidth of the signal is (3 * 2 *
106) - (2 * 106) = 4 MHz.
•Thus, a given bandwidth can support various data rates
depending on the ability of the receiver to discern the difference
between 0 and 1 in the presence of noise and other impairments.
Conclusions
 Any digital waveform using rectangular pulses will have
infinite bandwidth
 BUT the transmission system will limit the bandwidth that
can be transmitted
 AND, for any given medium, the greater the bandwidth
transmitted, the greater the cost
 HOWEVER, limiting the bandwidth creates distortions
which makes the task of interpreting the received signal
more difficult.
 The more limited the bandwidth, the greater the distortion
and the greater the potential for error by the receiver.
Data Communication Terms
 The terms analog and digital correspond,
roughly, to continuous and discrete, respectively
 Data - entities that convey meaning, or
information
 Signals - electric or electromagnetic
representations of data
 Transmission - communication of data by the
propagation and processing of signals
 Analog/Digital Data
 Analog data take on
continuous values in some
interval. Example: Video,
Voice, Audio(in form of
acoustic waves), Sensor
data (temperature,
pressure etc.)
 Digital data take on
discrete values; examples
are text and integers.
Analog Signals
 A continuously varying electromagnetic wave that
may be propagated over a variety of media,
depending on frequency
 Examples of media:
 Copper wire media (twisted pair and coaxial cable)
 Fiber optic cable
 Atmosphere or space propagation
 Analog signals can propagate analog and digital
data
 Digital Signals
 A sequence of voltage pulses that may be transmitted over a copper
wire medium
 For example, a constant positive voltage level may represent binary 0
and a constant negative voltage level may represent binary 1.
 Generally cheaper than analog signaling
 Less susceptible to noise interference
 Suffer more from attenuation (pulses become more round and
smaller). Attenuation can lead rather quickly to the loss of the
information contained in the propagated signal.
 Digital signals can propagate analog and digital data
Digital Signals
Digital Signals
Reasons for Choosing Data and
Signal Combinations
 Digital data, digital signal
 Equipment for encoding is less expensive than digital-
to-analog equipment
 Analog data, digital signal
 Conversion permits use of modern digital transmission
and switching equipment
 Digital data, analog signal
 Some transmission media will only propagate analog
signals
 Examples include optical fiber and satellite
 Analog data, analog signal
 Analog data easily converted to analog signal
Analog/Digital Data/Signal
 Analog Transmission
 means of transmitting analog signals without regard to
their content; the signals may represent analog data
(e.g., voice) or digital data (e.g., data that pass through a
modem)
 Attenuation limits length of transmission link
 Cascaded amplifiers boost signal’s energy for longer
distances but cause distortion (since it also boost noise
components)
 Analog data can tolerate distortion
 Introduces errors in digital data
 Digital Transmission
 Concerned with the content of the signal
 digital signal can be propagated only a limited distance
before attenuation endangers the integrity of the data.
 Digital Signal
 Repeaters achieve greater distance
 Repeaters receives the digital signal, recovers the pattern of ones
and zeros, and retransmits a new signal to overcome attenuation
 Analog signal carrying digital data
 Retransmission device recovers the digital data from analog signal
 Generates new, clean analog signal . Thus noise is not cumulative
Analog/Digital Signal/Transmission
 Channel Capacity
 Impairments, such as noise, limit data rate that can be
achieved and affects signal quality
 Noise - any unwanted signal that combines with and
hence distorts the signal intended for transmission and
reception
 For digital data, to what extent do impairments limit
data rate?
 Channel Capacity – the maximum rate at which data
can be transmitted over a given communication path, or
channel, under given conditions
 Concepts Related to Channel Capacity
 Data rate - rate at which data can be communicated (bps)
 Bandwidth - the bandwidth of transmitted signal as
constrained by transmitter and nature of transmission
medium expressed in cycles per second or Hertz
 greater the bandwidth of a facility, the greater the cost, Hence efficiently use as
possible of a given bandwidth in spite of noise
 Noise – consider average level of noise over the
communications path
 Error rate - rate at which errors occur i.e. error occurs
when transmit 1 and receive 0; transmit 0 and receive 1
 Nyquist Bandwidth
 When channel is noise free, data rate=signal bandwidth
 If rate of signal transmission is 2B, then a signal with frequencies
no greater than B is sufficient to carry the signal rate.
 The converse is also true: Given a Bandwidth of B, the highest
signal rate that can be carried is 2B.
 For binary signals (two voltage levels), channel capacity
 C = 2B
 Example - Consider a voice channel being used, via modem, to transmit
digital data with bandwidth of 3100 Hz. Then the capacity, C, of the
channel is 2B = 6200 bps.
 Nyquist Bandwidth
 With multilevel signaling
 C = 2B log2 M (M = number of discrete signal or voltage levels)
 Example - for M = 8, a value used with some modems, a bandwidth of B = 3100 Hz yields a
capacity C = 18,600 bps .
 For a given bandwidth, the data rate increases with increase in
number of different signal elements.
 Disdvantages :
 Places an increased burden on the receiver: Instead of distinguishing one of
two possible signal elements during each signal time, it must distinguish one
of M possible signals.
 Noise and other impairments on transmission line will limit real value of M.
 Shannon Capacity Formula
 Consider channel with noise that corrupts data bits
 If the data rate increases, then the become “shorter” in time, that affects
more bits by a given pattern of noise
 Thus, at given noise level, the higher the data rate, the higher the error rate.
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
 Ratio of the power in a signal to the power contained in
the noise that’s present at a particular point in the
transmission
 Typically measured at a receiver because it process the
signal and eliminate the unwanted noise
 Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR, or S/N) measured in decibels(dB)

signal power
 High SNR( SNR ) dB  high-quality
means 10 log10 signal with low number
noise power
of required intermediate repeaters
 SNR sets upper bound on achievable data rate
 Shannon Capacity Formula
 Maximum Channel capacity obeys Equation:


C  B log 2 1  SNR
Represents theoretical maximum that can be achieved

 Refers to error free capacity, Shannon proved that if actual information rate on a
channel is less than the error-free capacity, then it is theoretically possible to use
a suitable signal code to achieve error- free transmission through the channel
 In practice, only much lower rates achieved
 Formula assumes white noise (thermal noise)
 Impulse noise is not accounted for
 Attenuation distortion or delay distortion not accounted for
Note - Data rate could be increased by increasing either signal strength or bandwidth ; However, as the signal strength increases, so do
the effects of nonlinearities in the system, leading to an increase in intermodulation noise. Thus, as B increases, SNR decreases.
Example of Nyquist and Shannon
Formulations
 Spectrum of a channel between 3 MHz and
4 MHz ; SNRdB = 24 dB
B  4 MHz  3 MHz  1 MHz
SNR dB  24 dB  10 log10 SNR 
SNR  251
 Using Shannon’s formula
C  10  log 2 1  251  10  8  8Mbps
6 6
Example of Nyquist and Shannon
Formulations
 How many signaling levels are required?

C  2 B log 2 M
8  10  2  10  log 2 M
6 6

4  log 2 M
M  16
 Classifications of Transmission
Media
 Transmission Medium
 Physical path between transmitter and receiver
 Guided Media
 Waves are guided along a solid medium
 medium itself is usually more important in determining the limitations of transmission
 E.g., copper twisted pair, copper coaxial cable, optical fiber
 Unguided Media
 Provides means of transmission but does not guide electromagnetic signals
 Usually referred to as wireless transmission
 bandwidth of the signal produced by the transmitting antenna in determining
transmission characteristics
 E.g., atmosphere, outer space
 Characteristics and quality of a data transmission are determined both by
characteristics of medium and signal
 Unguided Media
 One key property of signals transmitted by antenna is
directionality
 Antenna radiates electromagnetic energy into the medium
(usually air), and for reception, the antenna picks up
electromagnetic waves from the surrounding medium
 Signals at lower frequencies are omnidirectional; that is,
the signal propagates in all directions from the antenna
 At higher frequencies, it is possible to focus the signal
into a directional beam.
General Frequency Ranges
 Microwave frequency range
 1 GHz to 40 GHz
 Directional beams possible
 Suitable for point-to-point transmission
 Used for satellite communications
 Radio frequency range
 30 MHz to 1 GHz
 Suitable for omnidirectional applications
 Infrared frequency range
 Roughly, 3x1011 to 2x1014 Hz
 Useful in local point-to-point multipoint applications
within confined areas
 Terrestrial Microwave
 Description of common microwave antenna
 Parabolic "dish", 3 m in diameter
 Fixed rigidly and focuses a narrow beam
 Achieves line-of-sight transmission to receiving antenna
 Located at substantial heights above ground level to extend the range between antennas and
to be able to transmit over intervening obstacles
 To achieve long-distance transmission, a series of microwave relay towers is used
 Applications
 Long haul telecommunications service since it requires few amplifiers/repeaters but requires
line-of-sight transmission (used for both voice and television transmission0
 Short point-to-point links between buildings used for closed- circuit TV or as a data link
between local area networks
 Short- haul microwave can also be used for the so-called bypass application
 Terrestrial Microwave
 Common frequencies used for microwave transmission: 2 to 40 GHz
 Higher the frequency used, the higher the potential bandwidth and therefore the
higher the potential data rate
 Loss can be expressed as: where d is the distance and λ is
the wavelength, in the same units i.e loss varies as the square of the distance
 Repeaters or amplifiers placed farther apart for microwave system 10 to 100 km
 Attenuation is increased with rainfall especially noticeable above 10 GHz
 As frequency increases, λ decreases and loss increases.
 Another source of impairment is interference, thus the assignment of frequency
bands is strictly regulated
 Satellite Microwave
 Description of communication satellite
 Microwave relay station

 Used to link two or more ground-based microwave

transmitter/receivers
 Receives transmissions on one frequency band (uplink), amplifies or

repeats the signal, and transmits it on another frequency (downlink)

 A single orbiting satellite will operate on a number of frequency

bands, called transponder channels, or simply transponders

 Applications
 Television distribution

 Long-distance telephone transmission

 Private business networks

 Satellite Microwave
 Optimum frequency range for satellite transmission: 1 to 10 GHz (<1 GHz 
significant noise from natural sources, including galactic, solar, and
atmospheric noise, and human-made interference from various electronic
devices whereas >10 GHz, the signal is severely attenuated by atmospheric
absorption and precipitation
 Uplink Bandwidth: 5.925 to 6.425 GHz, Downlink Bandwidth: 3.7 to 4.2 GHz
called as 4/6-GHz band (For continuous operation without interference, a
satellite cannot transmit and receive on the same frequency) becomes saturated
due to interference with terrestrial microwave
 12/14-GHz band (uplink: 14 to 14.5 GHz; downlink: 11.7 to 12.2 GHz) to
overcome attenuation
 20/30-GHz band (uplink: 27.5 to 30.0 GHz; downlink: 17.7 to 20.2
GHz)allows greater attenuation but greater bandwidth (2500 MHz versus 500
MHz) with smaller and cheaper receivers
Broadcast Radio
 Description of broadcast radio antennas
 Omnidirectional
 Antennas not required to be dish-shaped
 Antennas need not be rigidly mounted to a precise
alignment
 encompass frequencies in range of 3 kHz to 300 GHz
 Applications
 Broadcast radio
 VHF and part of the UHF band; 30 MHZ to 1GHz
 Covers FM radio and UHF and VHF television
 Broadcast Radio
 Ionosphere is transparent to radio waves above 30 MHz  transmission is limited
to the line of sight
 Distant transmitters will not interfere with each other due to reflection from the
atmosphere
 Less sensitive to attenuation from rainfall because of the longer wavelength
 Amount of attenuation due to distance for radio obeys Equation:

 A prime source of impairment for broadcast radio waves is multipath interference.

 Reflection from land, water, and natural or human-made objects can create multiple paths between
antennas
 This effect is frequently evident when TV reception displays multiple images as an airplane passes
by
 Infrared
 Infrared communications is achieved using transmitters/receivers
(transceivers) that modulate noncoherent infrared light
 Transceivers must be within the line of sight of each other either
directly or via reflection from a light-colored surface such as the
ceiling of a room
 Difference between infrared and microwave transmission is that
the former does not penetrate walls  security and interference
problems encountered in microwave systems are not present
 Furthermore, there is no frequency allocation issue with infrared,
because no licensing is required
 Multiplexing
 Capacity of transmission medium usually
exceeds capacity required for transmission of a
single signal
 Multiplexing - carrying multiple signals on a
single medium
 More efficient use of transmission medium
 Reasons for Widespread Use of
Multiplexing
 Cost per kbps of transmission facility declines with an increase in the
data rate i.e. higher the data rate, the more cost-effective the
transmission facility
 Cost of transmission and receiving equipment declines with increasing
data rate
 Most individual data communicating devices require relatively modest
data rate support
 For voice communications; Greater the capacity of transmission
facility in voice channels, the less the cost per individual voice
channel, and the capacity required for a single voice channel is modest
 Multiplexing Techniques
 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
 Takes advantage of the fact that the useful bandwidth of the medium
exceeds the required bandwidth of a given signal
 A number of signals can be carried simultaneously if each signal is
modulated onto a different carrier frequency and the carrier frequencies
are sufficiently separated so that the bandwidths of the signals do not
overlap
 Frequency-division Multiplexing
• Each signal requires a certain bandwidth centered on its
carrier frequency, referred to as a channel
• To prevent interference, the channels are separated by guard
bands, which are unused portions of the spectrum
• Example: Multiplexing of voice signals with voice spectrum of 300 to 3400 Hz 
Bandwidth of 4 kHz is adequate to carry the voice signal and provide a guard band
For both North America (AT&T standard) and internationally (International Telecommunication
Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector [ITU-T] standard), a standard voice
multiplexing scheme is twelve 4-kHz voice channels from 60 to 108 kHz. For higher- capacity
links, both AT&T and ITU-T define larger groupings of 4-kHz channels
 Multiplexing Techniques
 Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
 Takes advantage of the fact that the achievable bit rate
of the medium exceeds the required data rate of a
digital signal
 Multiple digital signals can be carried on a single
transmission path by interleaving (at bit/block level)
portions of each signal in time
Time-division Multiplexing
 Example, the multiplexer in
Figure has six inputs that
might each be, say, 9.6 kbps.
 A single line with a capacity
of 57.6 kbps could
accommodate all six sources
 Analogously to FDM, the
sequence of timeslots
dedicated to a particular
source is called a channel
 One cycle of time slots (one
per source) is called a frame
 Time-division Multiplexing
 Synchronous
TDM - referring to
the fact that time
slots are preassigned
and fixed  timing
of transmission from
the various sources is
synchronized
 Asynchronous
TDM - allows time
on the medium to be
allocated
dynamically
 Time-division Multiplexing
 TDM Example: Transmitting PCM voice data, known in AT&T parlance
as T1 carrier
 Data are taken from each source, one sample (7 bits) at a time

 8th bit is added for signaling and supervisory functions

 For T1, 24 sources are multiplexed, so there are 8 * 24 = 192 bits of

data and control signals per frame

 One final bit is added for establishing and maintaining
synchronization
 Thus a frame consists of 193 bits and contains one 7-bit sample per

source
 Since sources must be sampled 8000 times per second, the required

data rate is 8000 * 193 = 1.544 Mbps

TDM is not limited to digital signals. Analog signals can also be

interleaved in time. Also, with analog signals, a combination of TDM and

FDM is possible. A transmission system can be frequency divided into a
number of channels, each of which is further divided via TDM
Communication Networks
Types of Communication
Networks
 Traditional
 Traditional local area network (LAN)
 Traditional wide area network (WAN)
 Higher-speed
 High-speed local area network (LAN)
 Metropolitan area network (MAN)
 High-speed wide area network (WAN)
Speed and Distance of
Communications Networks
 Characteristics of WANs
 Covers large geographical areas
 Circuits provided by a common carrier
 Consists of interconnected switching nodes
 Transmission from any one device is routed through these internal nodes
to the specified destination device
 Implemented using; circuit/packet switching
 Frame relay and asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) assumed major roles
 Traditional WANs provide modest capacity
 64000 bps common
 Business subscribers using T-1 service – 1.544 Mbps common
 Higher-speed WANs use optical fiber and transmission technique known
as asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)
 10s and 100s of Mbps common
 Characteristics of LANs
 Interconnects a variety of devices and provides a means
for information exchange among them
 Traditional LANs
 Provide data rates of 1 to 20 Mbps
 High-speed LANS
 Provide data rates of 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps
 Differences between LANs and
WANs
 Scope of a LAN is smaller
 LAN interconnects devices within a single building or cluster of
buildings
 LAN usually owned by organization that owns the attached
devices with substantial capital investment for both purchase
and maintenance  network management responsibility falls
solely on the user
 For WANs, most of network assets are not owned by same
organization
 Internal data rate of LAN is much greater than WAN
 MANs
 Traditional point-to-point and switched network
techniques used in WANs are inadequate for growing
needs of organizations
 Need for high capacity at low costs over large area
 MAN provides:
 Service to customers in metropolitan areas
 Required capacity though overlap in geographical coverage
 Lower cost and greater efficiency than equivalent service from
local telephone company
 Switching Techniques
 Switching Nodes:
 Intermediate switching device that moves data to destination
 Not concerned with content of data
 Stations:
 End devices (be computers, terminals, telephones, or other
communicating devices) that wish to communicate
 Each station is connected to a switching node
 Nodes are connected to each other in some topology by transmission
links
 Communications Network:
 A collection of switching nodes
Switched Network
Example
 Some nodes connect only to other nodes (e.g., 5
and 7)
 Some nodes connect to one or more stations
 Node-station links usually dedicated point-to-
point links
 Node-node links usually multiplexed links
 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
 Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
 Not a direct link between every node pair
Techniques Used in Switched
Networks
 Circuit switching
 Dedicated communications path between two
stations
 E.g., public telephone network
 Packet switching
 Message is broken into a series of packets
 Each node determines next leg of transmission
for each packet
Phases of Circuit Switching
 Circuit establishment
 An end to end circuit is established through switching
nodes
 Information Transfer
 Information transmitted through the network
 Data may be analog voice, digitized voice, or binary
data
 Circuit disconnect
 Circuit is terminated
 Each node deallocates dedicated resources
 Characteristics of Circuit
Switching
 Can be inefficient
 Channel capacity dedicated for duration of connection
 Utilization not 100%
 Delay prior to signal transfer for establishment
 Once established, network is transparent to users
 Information transmitted at fixed data rate with only propagation delay
 Connection provides for transmission at a constant data rate  each
of connected two devices must transmit and receive at the same data
rate as the other, which limits the utility of the network in
interconnecting a variety of host computers and workstations.
 Components of Public
Telecommunications Network
 Subscribers - devices that attach to the network; mostly
telephones
 Subscriber line - link between subscriber and network
 Also called subscriber loop or local loop
 Exchanges - switching centers in the network
 A switching centers that support subscribers is an end office
 Trunks - branches between exchanges
Public Telecommunications Network
Public Telecommunications Network
 How Packet Switching Works
 Data is transmitted in blocks, called packets
 Before sending, the message is broken into a
series of packets
 Typical packet length is 1000 octets (bytes)
 Packets consists of a portion of data plus a packet
header that includes control information
 At each node en route, packet is received, stored
briefly and passed to the next node
Packet Switching
Packet Switching Advantages
 Line efficiency is greater
 Many packets over time can dynamically share the
same node to node link
 Packet-switching networks can carry out data-rate
conversion
 Two stations with different data rates can exchange
information
 Unlike circuit-switching networks that block calls
when traffic is heavy, packet-switching still
accepts packets, but with increased delivery delay
 Priorities can be used
Disadvantages of Packet
Switching
 Each packet switching node introduces a delay
 Overall packet delay can vary substantially
 This is referred to as jitter
 Caused by differing packet sizes, routes taken and
varying delay in the switches
 Each packet requires overhead information
 Includes destination and sequencing information
 Reduces communication capacity
 More processing required at each node
 Packet Switching Networks –
Datagram Approach
 Each packet treated independently, without reference
to previous packets
 Each node chooses next node on packet’s path
 Packets don’t necessarily follow same route and may
arrive out of sequence
 Exit node restores packets to original order
 Responsibility of exit node or destination to detect
loss of packet and how to recover
Packet Switching Networks –
Datagram
 Advantages:
 Call setup phase is avoided
 Because it’s more primitive, it’s more flexible
 Datagram delivery is more reliable
 Packet Switching Networks –
Virtual Circuit
 Preplanned route established before packets sent
 All packets between source and destination follow this
route
 Routing decision not required by nodes for each
packet
 Emulates a circuit in a circuit switching network but is
not a dedicated path
 Packets still buffered at each node and queued for output over
a line
 Packet Switching Networks –
Virtual Circuit
 Advantages:
 Packets arrive in original order
 Packets arrive correctly
 Packets transmitted more rapidly without routing
decisions made at each node
 Effect of Packet Size on
Transmission
 Breaking up packets decreases transmission time
because transmission is allowed to overlap
 Figure 3.9a
 Entire message (40 octets) + header information (3 octets)
sent at once
 Transmission time: 129 octet-times
 Figure 3.9b
 Message broken into 2 packets (20 octets) + header (3 octets)
 Transmission time: 92 octet-times
Effect of Packet Size on
Transmission
 Figure 3.9c
 Message broken into 5 packets (8 octets) + header (3
octets)
 Transmission time: 77 octet-times
 Figure 3.9d
 Making the packets too small, transmission time
starts increases
 Each packet requires a fixed header; the more packets,
the more headers
 Quality of service (QoS)
 In packet- switching networks usually pertains to the performance of a stream
of related packets
 Packets can be related to each other by being part of a common stream of video,
coming from the same file, or being from a series of interactions by the same
user
 Packets may all be part of a stream of packets from a common voice, audio, or
multimedia (i.e., video) presentation
 Requires steady delivery of packets, which translates into requirements for
delay, delay variation (also called jitter), and some amount of throughput to
meet the data rate of the presentation
 While voice is of course audio, it has been given special attention, especially for
cellular telephone networks
 Voice, Audio, and Video Traffic
• Also called as real time traffic
• Additional specific requirements
– Streaming live video comes from occasions such as live sporting
events which requires recency of data and is a one-way video with few
second delay expected
– Streaming stored video comes from sites such as YouTube. The
recency of the data stream is not important, so several seconds of video
can be buffered to overcome irregularities in traffic delivery
– Video conferencing involves two-way communication with
expectation of bounded round trip delay between when a person speaks
and when a response would be expected in normal human interaction.
 Data Traffic
• Requires packets to eventually arrive free from error (can be
retransmitted or corrected at first transmission)
• Categorize data traffic in two categories:
• Interactive data traffic exists when people wait for data to be
delivered before proceeding with anything else. This might include
waiting for a Web page to load or for an online transaction to
complete.
• Non-interactive data traffic occurs in the background while people
are performing other activities. This would involve electronic mail
or other types of batch processing or downloading activities.
 Data Traffic
• For data traffic, throughput is somewhat more important than
delay
• Data traffic is also considered elastic that avoids exacerbated
congestion from nodes trying to retransmit when network
conditions might already be poor
• Data is typically delivered in files and it is the final delivery time
of those files which is important, not the steady delivery of bits in
the middle
• Data traffic is also commonly called non-real-time traffic
 Example
• Consider the delivery of a 10 Mbyte audio file over an LTE
connection with an average rate of 2 Mbps.
• The expected delivery time would be
• (10 * 106 bytes)(8 bits/byte)/(2 * 106 bits/s) = 40 s
• Here are three of many ways this could be delivered.
1. Steady 2 Mbps for 40 s
2. 10 Mbps for 4 s, 0.5 Mbps for 20 s, 0 Mbps for 26 s, 3 Mbps for the last 10 s.
3. 0 Mbps for 38 s, 40 Mbps for 2 s.
• As long as a person watching the download does think something is
wrong and quits the download early, all are acceptable.
 Provision of QoS
• Overprovisioning delivers sufficiently high data rates and low congestion for
a very large percentage of the time. Therefore, no explicit knowledge of QoS
requirements or control of resources to meet QoS is necessary. Best effort
traffic; network does its best to make timely deliveries.
• Prioritization without guarantees is a scheme where certain types of users
(such as emergency users or high paying users) have their packets marked
higher priority. Scheduling schemes give those packets higher priority when
making decisions. But if there is congestion, the higher priority packet will
receive relatively better service, but degraded service nonetheless.
• Prioritization with guarantees provides numerical bounds on performance,
also possibly with some statistical reliability. For example, packets might
receive delay less than 100 ms 99.9% of the time.
Protocols and the TCP/IP Suite
Need for a Protocol Architecture
 When computers, terminals, and/or other data-processing devices exchange
data, the procedures involved can be quite complex
 Need a high degree of cooperation between the two computer systems
 In a protocol architecture, the modules are arranged in a vertical stack
 Each layer in the stack performs a related subset of the functions required to
communicate with another system
 It relies on the next lower layer to perform more primitive functions and to conceal
the details of those functions
 It provides services to the next higher layer
 Ideally, layers should be defined so that changes in one layer do not require
changes in other layers
 The peer layers communicate by means of formatted blocks of data that obey
a set of rules or conventions known as a protocol
Key Features of a Protocol
 Syntax
 Concerns the format of the data blocks
 Semantics
 Includes control information for coordination
and error handling
 Timing
 Includes speed matching and sequencing
Agents Involved in
Communication
 Applications
 Exchange data between computers (e.g.,
electronic mail)
 Computers
 Connected to networks
 Networks
 Transfers data from one computer to another
TCP/IP Layers
 Physical layer
 Network access layer
 Internet layer
 Host-to-host, or transport layer
 Application layer
TCP/IP Physical Layer
 Covers the physical interface between a
data transmission device and a
transmission medium or network
 Physical layer specifies:
 Characteristics of the transmission medium
 The nature of the signals
 The data rate
 Other related matters
TCP/IP Network Access Layer
 Concerned with the exchange of data
between an end system and the network to
which it's attached
 Software used depends on type of network
 Circuit switching
 Packet switching (e.g., X.25)
 LANs (e.g., Ethernet)
 Others
T:TCP/IP Internet Layer
 Uses internet protocol (IP)
 Provides routing functions to allow data to
traverse multiple interconnected networks
 Implemented in end systems and routers
TCP/IP Host-to-Host, or
Transport Layer
 Commonly uses transmission control
protocol (tcp)
 Provides reliability during data exchange
 Completeness
 Order
TCP/IP Application Layer
 Logic supports user applications
 Uses separate modules that are peculiar to
each different type of application
Protocol Data Units (PDUs)
Common TCP/IP Applications
 Simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP)
 Provides a basic electronic mail facility
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 Allows files to be sent from one system to
another
 TELNET
 Provides a remote logon capability
Layers of the OSI Model
 Application
 Presentation
 Session
 Transport
 Network
 Data link
 Physical
Layers of the OSI Model
Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP
TCP/IP Architecture Dominance
 TCP/IP protocols matured quicker than
similar OSI protocols
 When the need for interoperability across
networks was recognized, only TCP/IP was
available and ready to go
 OSI model is unnecessarily complex
 Accomplishes in seven layers what TCP/IP
does with fewer layers
Elements of Standardization
within OSI Framework
 Protocol Specification
 Format of protocol data units (PDUs) exchanged
 Semantics of all fields
 Allowable sequence of PDUs
 Service Definition
 Functional description that defines what services are
provided, but not how the services are to be provided
 Addressing
 Entities are referenced by means of a service access
point (SAP)
Internetworking Terms
 Communication network – facility that provides a
data transfer service among devices attached to the
network
 Internet – collection of communication networks,
interconnected by bridges/routers
 Intranet – internet used by an organization for
internal purposes
 Provides key Internet applications
 Can exist as an isolated, self-contained internet
Internetworking Terms
 End System (ES) – device used to support
end-user applications or services
 Intermediate System (IS) – device used to
connect two networks
 Bridge – an IS used to connect two LANs
that use similar LAN protocols
 Router - an IS used to connect two networks
that may or may not be similar
Functions of a Router
 Provide a link between networks
 Provide for the routing and delivery of data
between processes on end systems attached
to different networks
 Provide these functions in such a way as not
to require modifications of the networking
architecture of any of the attached
subnetworks
Network Differences Routers
Must Accommodate
 Addressing schemes
 Different schemes for assigning addresses
 Maximum packet sizes
 Different maximum packet sizes requires segmentation
 Interfaces
 Differing hardware and software interfaces
 Reliability
 Network may provide unreliable service

AMIR
Internetworking Example
Internetworking Example
Internetworking Example
Internetworking Example
 OVERVIEW OF WIRELESS
COMMUNICATIONS
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Networks and Systems
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Overview of Wireless 5-
136
 Channel Correction Mechanisms
• Efforts to compensate for the errors and distortions
introduced by multipath fading fall into four
general categories:
o Forward error correction
o Adaptive equalization
o Adaptive modulation and coding
o Diversity techniques with multiple-input
multiple-output (MIMO)

Overview of Wireless 5-75

 Forward Error Correction
• Applicable in digital transmission applications like signal carries
digital data or digitized voice or video data
• Forward refers to procedures whereby a receiver, using only
information contained in the incoming digital transmission,
corrects bit errors in the data
• Backward error correction is not practical in many wireless
applications.
o In satellite communications, the amount of delay involved
makes retransmission undesirable. Since the error rates are
often so high that there is a high probability that the
retransmitted block of bits will also contain errors.

Overview of Wireless 5-75

 Forward Error Correction Steps
1. Using a coding algorithm, the transmitter adds a number of
additional, redundant bits to each transmitted block of data.
These bits form an error- correcting code and are calculated as a
function of the data bits.
2. For each incoming block of bits (data plus error-correcting
code), the receiver calculates a new error- correcting code from
the incoming data bits. If the calculated code matches the
incoming code, then the receiver assumes that no error has
occurred in this block of bits.
3. If the incoming and calculated codes do not match, then one or
more bits are in error. If the number of bit errors is below a
threshold that depends on the length of the code and the nature
of the algorithm, it is possible for the receiver to determine the
bit positions in error and correct all errors. Overview of Wireless 5-75
 Adaptive Equalization
• Applied to transmissions that carry analog information (e.g.,
analog voice or video) or digital information (e.g., digital data,
digitized voice or video) and is used to combat intersymbol
interference
• Process involves some method of gathering the dispersed symbol
energy back together into its original time interval

Overview of Wireless 5-75

 Diversity Techniques
• Based on fact that individual channels experience independent
fading events
• Therefore compensate for error effects by providing multiple
logical channels in some sense between transmitter and receiver
and sending part of the signal over each channel
• Does not eliminate errors but it does reduce the error rate, since
we have spread the transmission out to avoid being subjected to
the highest error rate that might occur
• The other techniques (equalization, forward error correction) can
then cope with the reduced error rate

Overview of Wireless 5-75

 Diversity Techniques
• Space diversity - diversity techniques involve the physical
transmission path
 Example1: multiple nearby antennas, if spaced far enough
apart, may be used to receive the message with the signals
combined in some fashion to reconstruct the most likely
transmitted signal
 Example 2: Use of collocated multiple directional antennas,
each oriented to a different reception angle with the incoming
signals again combined to reconstitute the transmitted signal
• Frequency diversity - the signal is spread out over a larger
frequency bandwidth or carried on multiple frequency carriers
 Example: Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
(OFDM) and spread spectrum Overview of Wireless 5-75
 Diversity Techniques
• Time diversity - Spread the data out over time so that a noise
burst affects fewer bits
 accomplished with interleaving or through a Rake receiver
 When these multiple signals are received, there are two basic
ways they can be used:
o Selection diversity: Choose one signal that is acceptable
or the best
o Diversity combining: Combine the best signal with the
other signals. Adjust the gain and phase so they add
together to improve the overall output signal

Overview of Wireless 5-75

 Diversity Techniques Example
Suppose a wireless channel has two possible quality levels. It has an 80%
probability of having a bit error rate of 10-6, but a 20% probability of having a bit
error rate of 0.1. Assume independently varying signals can be received through
two antennas, and the system uses selection diversity to choose the best signal.
How does the overall performance improve?
•For one signal, the performance is

•For two diversity branches, the only case of poor performance would occur if
both branches would be poor so no good signal could be found. The probability of
both being poor is 0.22, so

•For k signals,
•This means that Pb drops one order of magnitude for each additional diversity
branch.
Overview of Wireless 5-75
 Multiple-Input Multiple- Output
(MIMO) Antennas
• MIMO - Transmitter and receiver implement a system with
multiple antennas
• Mechanisms to implement:
1. Diversity: Diversity can be accomplished to have
multiple received signal through multiple transmit and/or
receive antennas
2. Beam-forming: Multiple antennas can be configured to
create directional antenna patterns to focus and increase
energy to intended recipients
3. Multi-user MIMO (MU- MIMO): With enough IMO
antennas, directional antenna beams can be established to
multiple users simultaneously
4. Multilayer transmission: Multiple, parallel data streams
can flow between a pair of transmit and receive antennas
Overview of Wireless 5-75
 MIMO
• Modern systems implement up to 4 * 4 (4 input, 4 output) and 8
* 8 MIMO configurations, future technologies use 8 per antenna
array, and 2D arrays of 64 antennas
• Applications include high-speed wireless networks, IEEE
802.11 Wi-Fi, LANs and Long Term Evolution (LTE) 4G
cellular

Overview of Wireless 5-75

 Spread Spectrum and OFDM
• Traditional communications, wireline or wireless, simply modulate a
baseband signal up to a required transmission channel and frequency
without change to the original signal
• Two methods, however, have been used to overcome wireless channel
impairments; the signals are significantly modified for transmission:
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) splits a
signal into many lower bit rate streams that are transmitted over
carefully spaced frequencies to overcome frequency selective
fading by using significantly lower bandwidth per stream with
longer bit times. Each of these frequencies can then be amplified
separately
 Spread spectrum makes a signal use 100 times or more wider
bandwidth, with lower energy density at each frequency to
overcome frequency selective situations; even if some frequencies
are poor, good overall average performance is achieved.
Overview of Wireless 5-75
 Adaptive Modulation and Coding
• Essentially create signals that send as much information as possible for a
given received signal strength and noise, then they detect and correct the
errors.
• To adapt 100’s of times per second, two features must be present in the
protocols for a system:
1. Mechanisms to measure the quality of the wireless channel such
as monitoring packet loss rates or sending special pilot signals
expressly for measurement purposes
2. Messaging mechanisms to communicate the signal quality
indicators between transmitters and receivers, and also to
communicate the new modulation and coding formats

Overview of Wireless 5-75

 Bandwidth Expansion
• Signal to noise ratio limits bandwidth efficiency  bandwidth expansion
approaches are used:
1. Carrier aggregation combines multiple channels. For example,
802.11n and 802.11ac combine the 20 MHz channels from earlier
802.11 standards into 40, 80, or 160 MHz channels
2. Frequency reuse allows the same carrier frequencies to be reused
when devices are sufficiently far enough away so the signal-to-
interference ratio is low enough- provided by breaking a cellular
coverage area into large cells, called macro cells, of several
kilometers in diameter - Indoor small cells are commonly called
femtocells and outdoor cells are provided by relays or picocells -
called as network densification because it allows frequencies to be
reused many times
3. Millimeter wave (mmWave) bands are higher frequencies in the 30
GHz to 300 GHz bands that have more bandwidth available in wider
bandwidth channels. Recall that λ= c/f , so 30 toOverview
300of Wireless
GHz 5-75 has
wavelengths of 10 to 1 mm
CODING AND ERROR CONTROL
• Error detection codes
– Detects the presence of an error
• Automatic repeat request (ARQ) protocols
– Block of data with error is discarded
– Transmitter retransmits that block of data
• Error correction codes, or forward correction codes
(FEC)
– Designed to detect and correct errors

Overview of Wireless 5-75

 ERROR DETECTION PROCESS
• Transmitter
– For a given frame, an error-detecting code (check bits) is
calculated from data bits
– Check bits are appended to data bits
• Receiver
– Separates incoming frame into data bits and check bits
– Calculates check bits from received data bits
– Compares calculated check bits against received check
bits
– Detected error occurs if mismatch
5.13 ERROR DETECTION PROCESS
 Parity Check
• The simplest error detection scheme is to append a
parity bit to the end of a block of data
• A typical example is character transmission, in
which a parity bit is attached to each 7-bit character.
• The value of this bit is selected so that the character
has an even number of 1s (even parity) or an odd
number of 1s (odd parity).
 Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
• Given a k- bit block of bits, or message, the transmitter
generates an (n - k)-bit sequence, known as a frame check
sequence (FCS), such that the resulting frame, consisting of n
bits, is exactly divisible by some predetermined number
• Receiver then divides the incoming frame by that number
and, if there is no remainder, assumes there was no error.
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
 Polynomials
• CRC process is to express all values as polynomials in a
dummy variable X, with binary coefficients
 Block Error Correction Codes
• On the transmission end, each k- bit block of data is mapped
• into an n- bit block (n 7 k) called a codeword, using an FEC
encoder
• Codeword is then transmitted; in the case of wireless
transmission a modulator produces an analog signal for
transmission
• During transmission, the signal is subject to noise, which may
produce bit errors in the signal
• At the receiver, the incoming signal is demodulated to
produce a bit string that is similar to the original codeword
but may contain errors
 Block Error Correction Codes
• This block is passed through an FEC decoder
1. If there are no bit errors, the input to the FEC decoder is identical to
the original codeword, and the decoder produces the original data
block as output.
2. For certain error patterns, it is possible for the decoder to detect and
correct those errors. Thus, even though the incoming data block differs
from the transmitted codeword, the FEC decoder is able to map this
block into the original data block.
3. For certain error patterns, the decoder can detect but not correct the
errors. In this case, the decoder simply reports an uncorrectable error.
4. For certain, typically rare, error patterns, the decoder detects an error,
but does not correct it properly. It assumes a certain block of data was
sent when in reality of different one was sent
5. For certain even more rare error patterns, the decoder does not detect
that any errors have occurred and maps the incoming n- bit data block
into a k-bit block that differs from the original k-bit block.
Block Error Correction Codes
 Block Code Principles
• Hamming distance d(v1, v2) between two n- bit binary
sequences v1 and v2 is the number of bits in which v1 and
v2 disagree. For example, if v1 = 011011, v2 = 110001 then
d(v1, v2) = 3
The design of a block code involves a number of considerations:
1. For given values of n and k, we would like the largest possible value of
dmin.
2. The code should be relatively easy to encode and decode, requiring
minimal memory and processing time.
3. We would like the number of extra bits, (n - k), to be small, to reduce
bandwidth.
4. We would like the number of extra bits, (n - k), to be large, to reduce
error rate.
Block Code Principles
Block Code Principles
 Low-Density Parity-Check Codes
• Uses very long block codes, normally longer than 1000 bits
• To check for errors among these bits, a series of parity equations are
implemented, usually organized in an H matrix
• For example, one might require the following:
• Each equation should have at least three bits added together, and there
will be hundreds of such equations for 1000 bits
 Low-Density Parity-Check Codes
• For example, constraint node c1 corresponds to the following equation:
v3 + v4 + v5 + v6 = 0
• LDPC uses an iterative decoding procedure as follows:
1.Variable nodes at the top use external information from demodulator, to determine
their estimates for their bit values. If they use a soft decoding approach, they also
estimate the probabilities that the bits should be 0 or 1.
2.Estimates are then sent to constraint nodes to see if the estimated values satisfy all
the equations. If so, the decoding stops since an acceptable answer has been found. If
not, the constraint nodes combine the information sent to them from their connected
variable nodes to determine which bits are most likely to be different than their
estimates. This corresponds to the most likely bit changes that are needed to satisfy
the equations.
3.The estimates from the constraint nodes are sent to the variable nodes. Since
variable nodes are connected to multiple constraint nodes, the variable nodes combine
the newly acquired information to update their estimates of their bit values and
probabilities.
4.These are sent again to the constraint nodes. If the equations are now satisfied, then
stop. Otherwise, continue the decoding process. This decoding procedure is known as
message passing or belief propagation.
 Convolutional Codes
• A (n, k) block code processes data in blocks of k bits at a
time, producing a block of n bits (n > k) as output for every
block of k bits as input, convolutional codes is defined by
three parameters: n, k, and K
• An (n, k, K) code processes input data k bits at a time and
produces an output of n bits for each incoming k bits where
n and k are generally quite small numbers
• Convolutional codes have memory, which is characterized
by the constraint factor K
• Current n-bit output of an (n, k, K) code depends not only
on the value of the current block of k input bits but also on
the previous K - 1 blocks of k input bits  Hence, the
current output of n bits is a function of the last K * k input
bits.
 Turbo coding
• Turbo codes exhibit performance, in terms of bit error
probability, that is very close to the Shannon limit and can
be efficiently implemented for high-speed use
Turbo coding
• Turbo encoder implemented using 2 RSC Encoders
 Automatic Repeat Request
• Data are sent as a sequence of PDUs; PDUs arrive in the
same order in which they are sent; and each transmitted
PDU suffers an arbitrary and variable amount of delay
before reception.
• Two types of errors:
 Lost PDU: A PDU fails to arrive at the other side.
For example, a noise burst may damage a PDU to the
extent that the receiver is not aware that a PDU has
been transmitted
 Damaged PDU: A recognizable PDU does arrive, but
some of the bits are in error (have been altered during
transmission) and cannot be corrected
 Automatic Repeat Request
• The most common techniques for error control are based on
some or all of the following ingredients:
 Error detection: The receiver detects errors and
discards PDUs that are in error
 Positive acknowledgment: The destination returns a
positive acknowledgment to successfully received,
error-free PDUs.
 Retransmission after timeout: The source retransmits
a PDU that has not been acknowledged after a
predetermined amount of time
 Negative acknowledgment and retransmission: The
destination returns a negative acknowledgment to PDUs
in which an error is detected. The source retransmits
such PDUs.
 Automatic Repeat Request
• In go-back-N ARQ, a station may send a series of PDUs
sequentially numbered modulo some maximum value
• The number of unacknowledged PDUs outstanding is determined
by window size, using the sliding-window flow control technique
• When no errors occur, the destination will acknowledge incoming
PDUs with RR = receive ready or with a piggybacked
acknowledgment on a data PDU
• If the destination station detects an error in a PDU, it sends a
negative acknowledgment (REJ = reject) for that PDU
• The destination station will discard that PDU and all future
incoming PDUs until the PDU in error is correctly received
• Thus the source station, when it receives a REJ, must retransmit the
PDU in error plus all succeeding PDUs that had been transmitted in
the interim. Hence, the name go-back-N to retransmit thesePDUs.
 Go-back-N contingencies
1. Damaged PDU: If the received PDU is invalid (i.e., B detects an
error), B discards the PDU and takes no further action as the result
of that PDU. There are two subcases:
a. Within a reasonable period of time, A subsequently sends
PDU (i + 1). B receives PDU (i + 1) out of order since it is
expecting PDU (i) and sends a REJ i. A must retransmit
PDU i and all subsequent PDUs.
b. A does not soon send additional PDUs. B receives nothing
and returns neither an RR nor a REJ. When A’s timer
expires, it transmits an RR PDU that includes a bit known as
the P bit, which is set to 1. B interprets the RR PDU with a P
bit of 1 as a command that must be acknowledged by
sending an RR indicating the next PDU that it expects,
which is PDU i. When A receives the RR, it retransmits
PDU i.
Go-back-N contingencies
2. Damaged RR: There are two subcases:
a.B receives PDU i and sends RR (i + 1), which suffers an error in
transit. Because acknowledgments are cumulative (e.g., RR 6 means
that all PDUs through 5 are acknowledged), it may be that A will
receive a subsequent RR to a subsequent PDU and that it will arrive
before the timer associated with PDU i expires.
b.If A’s timer expires, it transmits an RR command as in Case 1b. It
sets another timer, called the P-bit timer. If B fails to respond to the
RR command, or if its response suffers an error in transit, then A’s P-
bit timer will expire. At this point, A will try again by issuing a new
RR command and restarting the P- bit timer. This procedure is tried
for a number of iterations.If A fails to obtain an acknowledgment after
some maximum number of attempts, it initiates a reset procedure.
3. Damaged REJ: If a REJ is lost, this is equivalent to Case 1b..
Go-back-N
 Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request
• Soft Decision Decoding: The decoding process can provide not just an
assessment of a bit being 0 or 1, but also levels of confidence in those results.
• Chase Combining: Previous frames that were not corrected by FEC need not be
discarded. The soft decision information can be stored and then combined with
soft decision information from retransmissions. In chase combining, the exact
same frames are retransmitted each time and soft combined.
• Incremental Redundancy: Each time a sender retransmits, different coding
information can be provided. This can accomplish two goals:
1. Lower Overhead: The initial packets can include less coding; if
enough, then the packet can be successful and overhead can be avoided.
For example, the first frame may only include a few bytes of an error
detection code like CRC, with later frames then including FEC after the
first frame has errors.
2. Stronger Correction: The retransmissions can provide different coding
at the same coding rates or stronger coding at lower coding rate to
increase the probability of successful transmission by the second or third
frames.
 Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request
• Puncturing: Removes bits to increase the coding rate allows the decoder
structure to remain the same, instead of having multiple decoders for different
code rates. The benefits of this reduction in complexity can outweigh the
reduction in performance from puncturing. Used with HARQ incremental
redundancy, puncturing will take a single output from an FEC coder and remove
more or different bits each time.
• Adaptive Modulation and Coding: Systems will use channel quality
information (CQI) to estimate the best modulation and coding to work with
HARQ. For example, LTE uses the CQI to determine the highest modulation and
coding rate that would provide a 10% block error rate for the first HARQ
transmission.
• Parallel HARQ Processes: Some systems wait until the HARQ process finishes
for one frame before sending the next frame; this is known as a stop-and-wait
protocol. The process of waiting for an ACK or NACK, followed by possible
multiple retransmissions can be time consuming. Therefore, some HARQ
implementations allow for multiple open HARQ operations to be occurring at the
same time. This is known as an N- channel Stop-and-Wait protocol.