INTRODUCTIO

N TO
GEOPOLITICS
 What is geopolitics?
Study of the
relationships between
demography,
economics,
environment, Demography
Economics
Politics
Environment
Geography
geography, and politics
and how they
influence countries’
foreign and national
security policies.
Geopolitical Schools of Thoughts
Classical
Geopolitics

Critical HYBRID Popular

Geopolitics Geopolitics Geopolitics

Feminist
Geopolitics
Classical Geopolitics
A tradition of political and strategic thought that emphasizes the role of geography and
environmental factors in shaping international relations, state behavior and the
distribution of power. Has influenced the study of international relations and the
development of foreign policies but has also been criticized for its deterministic and
sometimes controversial perspectives on race, ethnicity, and nationalism.
 Heartland Theory – Halford Mackinder, states that the state with control over the
“heartland” (the vast landmass of Eastern Europe and Asia) would become the
dominant world power.
 Rimland Theory – Nicholas Spykman, argues that control over the “Rimland” (the
coastal regions surrounding the Heartland) is necessary for global dominance.
 Lebensraum – Friedrich Ratzel, states require living space, or geographical territory,
to secure their survival and growth.
 Geopolitical Pivot – idea that certain states or regions, due to their geographical
location and resources, serve as a geopolitical pivot, exerting significant influence
on international relations. (Saudi Arabia)
 Island Theory – idea that island nations, such as Great Britain, have a unique
geopolitical advantage due to their insular geography, allowing them to protect
their resources and maintain naval dominance.
Critical Geopolitics
Emerged in the 1980s and 1990s and adopts a wider angle of vision and
deconstructs the basic entities of traditional geopolitics. Looks at the social
construction of nation-states to ask whose interests are represented and not
represented by the national interest.
1. Critiques of American exceptionalism and the role of US foreign policy in shaping the
global political and economic order.
 Can be seen in the examination of US military interventions in the Middle East and the broader global South.
Critics argue that the US has pursued a policy of military intervention in the region, often under the guise of
spreading democracy and fighting terrorism, in order to secure its own strategic and economic interests.
 These interventions are seen as examples of American exceptionalism, as the US claims to be acting in the
interest of the entire world while pursuing its own interests. Critics argue that these interventions have
destabilized the region, contributed to the rise of extremist groups, and perpetuated inequality and poverty.
 Additionally, the US's role in shaping the global political and economic order through its dominant position in
international financial institutions, such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, has also
been criticized for reinforcing existing power structures and perpetuating inequality between rich and poor
countries.
 The US's use of its economic power to shape the policies of other countries and its leadership in international
trade agreements, such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), are also seen as examples of its
efforts to shape the global political and economic order to its advantage.
Critical Geopolitics – con’t
2. Examination of the ways in which the geopolitical narratives used to justify
imperialism and colonialism have perpetuated inequality and oppression
around the world.
• Can be seen in the analysis of European colonial rule in Africa.
• European colonial powers, such as Britain, France, and Belgium, justified their
colonization of African territories based on a narrative of civilizing the
"uncivilized" and "barbaric" African people. This narrative portrayed the
colonizers as bringing modernity, civilization, and Christianity to Africa, while
depicting the colonized people as backwards and in need of "saving".
• Critics of this narrative argue that European colonial rule in Africa was
motivated not by a desire to help the African people, but by a desire to exploit
their resources and control their markets. The policies of colonial rule, such as
the imposition of direct rule, the exploitation of African labor, and the forced
collectivization of land, perpetuated inequality and oppression, and
contributed to ongoing political and economic instability in the region.
Critical Geopolitics – con’t
3. Examination of the role of gender, race, and other identity categories in
shaping geopolitical discourse and practices.
4. Analysis of the ways in which media representations of geography and
foreign policy contribute to the construction of political identities and the
justification of military interventions.
• Coverage of the 2003 invasion of Iraq; invasion of Ukraine; the Middle
East conflict; etc
• Media outlets failed to provide a nuanced and accurate depiction of
the complex geopolitical, cultural, and historical factors at play
5. Study of the relationship between the state, borders, and globalization,
and how these relationships perpetuate or challenge existing power
structures.
6. Analysis of the ways in which environmental and resource issues are
politicized and used to justify or challenge geopolitical interventions.
Feminist Geopolitics
Field of study that explores the ways in which gender affects and is affected by political and
economic power relationships in the world. Examines the too-often-ignored role of women and
does more than just acknowledge and question the male perspective that pervades traditional
geopolitics – but provides alternatives to a world order dominated by states and the pursuit of
“national” interest, which may not be serving the interests of ALL the national population.
 Concerned with identifying more community-based, progressive movements, such as the rise
of a global green movement that stresses sustainability rather than the pursuit of narrow
national economic interest;
 Concerned with identifying humanitarian movements that call for the rights of indigenous
peoples, undocumented migrants, and the marginalized; (ex: the role of women’s activism in
the Middle East – Iranian woman protesting the head scarf, Saudi women getting the right to
drive, etc)
 More concerned with nongovernment agencies and grassroots movements than with nation-
states imagined as one coherent unit
 Examines the ways in which gender operates in political, economic, and cultural contexts,
including the ways in which it shapes the experiences of conflict and violence, migration and
displacement, and the allocation of resources and power.
Popular Geopolitics
Popular geopolitics looks at the way geopolitical ideas and images are
incorporated, produced, and contested in popular culture.
 Popular religious beliefs can have geopolitical consequences - such as the U.S. Christian right’s
unwavering support of Israel.
 Religions that see an apocalyptic end to the world can influence popular understandings of war
and peace, diplomacy, and international relations
 Video games can fashion a popular understanding of threats to the homeland
 Movies and TV often contain ideas about the geopolitical world order embedded in images of
other nations and peoples- Homeland, for example, provided a view of a United States
constantly under threat from terrorists (often portrayed in US media as only Muslim)
 Depiction of other countries in popular media is also revealing in that it can reinforce existing
stereotypes of the foreign other and of home. U.S. newspaper coverage of Russia from 2008 to
2014 was framed around the idea of a neo-Soviet autocracy. Russian politics that did not fit this
frame were ignored, and overall, the coverage tended to present Russia as a dark contrast to
brighten the image of a democratic United States leading the “free” world – can also be seen in
the way North Korea is portrayed in the media
 The connections between terrorism and particular regions of the world are a common theme
of Hollywood action movies
Hybrid Geopolitics
Classical geopolitics in the modern era is more
aware of the social construction of their
categorizations. Critical, feminist, and popular
geopolitics still consider the role of state and its
interactions with other states.
It is more accurate to consider contemporary
geopolitics as a hybrid that encompasses elements
of the different approaches with differences in
emphasis rather than solid categorical divisions.
Key Founders of Geopolitics
Friedrich Ratzel (1844-1904)
Rudolf Kjellén (1864-1922)
Halford Mackinder (1861-1947)
Alfred Thayer Mahan (1840-1914)
Sergei Gorshkov (1910-1988)
Golbery do Couto e Silva (1911-1987)
Friedrich Ratzel (1844-1904)
• German geographer regarded as founder of modern human and political
geography.
• Responsible for coining the phrase (anthrogeographical) a term indicating the
combination of the disciplines of anthropology, geography, and politics.
• Believed that the land molded the people who lived there and produced
commonality of interests, needs etc which led to the creation of 'nations’.
• Originated the concept of Lebensraum, or “living space,” which relates human
groups to the spatial units where they develop.
• Borders become insignificant so that a developing state or one that is advancing is
likely to require annexation of territories that are controlled by other less
powerful states.
• Offered the idea of Weltmacht and the sea--refering to the ongoing expansion of
a dominant German nation-state which should take it to the sea and beyond,
ultimately leading to the domination of the sea as well as the land by Germany.
• Inevitable struggle occurs in nation-states that they must grow or die, losing or
gaining influence in direct proportion to its capacity for defeating or overcoming
its rivals.
 Rudolf Kjellén (1864-1922)
• Swedish political scientist and politician, influenced by German idealist philosophy, social Darwinism,
and prevailing imperialist views
• Regularly referred to as “the father of geopolitics”.
• Believed nation-states were more important than individuals
• Saw the nation-state as a state of both land and people; however, he also argued that as the 20
Century progressed, a number of forces would coalesce to force Europe and particularly Central
Europe to create a bloc of states under the protection of a powerful Germany.
• Invariably viewed the geopolitical world through the lens of Aryan ideology and commitment to the
expansion of the Germanic empire.
• Concept of Reich as a composite of Raum/Lebensraum or ‘living room’ and ‘space’ and the
establishment of a strategic military shape that could be defended by a strong military and overseen
via a centralized governmental body. Was later asserted as a key justification for German expansionism
under the Nazis.
• Supported many German WWI objectives and believed the U.S. and Russia were the only two countries
capable of becoming world powers.
• Proposed the concept of Regierung - a governmental system, combining a strong, centralized
bureaucracy and an equally powerful military. Clearly, he was calling for an extremely orthodox and
authoritarian state in which all power was vested in the central government and in which internal
dissent was not tolerated or allowed to disrupt order.
• Consequently, he saw a strong reich as a necessity and he felt that it was to Germany that Europe
should look for the idealized model of such a state.
 Halford Mackinder (1861-1947)
• Professor of geography at Oxford University and promoter of geopolitics
• Warned of the threat of global domination from the east.
• His theories influenced Hitler and are now having a revival.
• Recognized that geographical boundaries were subject to change or flux and that the map of the
world was continually being redrawn as a consequence of imperialism.
• Idea of the Eurasian heartland is one of his best known contributions to the field of geopolitics.
• Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland
• Who Rules the Heartland Commands the World Island
• Who Rules the World Island commands the World
• Proposed that the world had experienced 3 unique geopolitical periods - he proposed the
periods of land, sea, and land transport again as shaping geopolitical relationships while the
heartland remained the key position on the global battlefield regardless of which type of
transportation dominated.
• “The Geographical Pivot of History” (1904) published by the Royal Geographical Society’s
Geographical Journal stressed his concern that one power or alliance of powers could gain
control of Eurasia and use that region’s resources for global domination.
• Believed Russia’s geographic position made it possible for it to expand its power and saw China
and Japan as future challengers to Russia.
 Alfred Thayer Mahan (1840-
1914)
• American naval officer who emphasized the importance of sea power as a major
factor in geopolitics.
• Argued that British control of the seas paved the way for its emergence as the
world's dominant military, political, and economic power.
• Shaped American military planning and helped to ignite a worldwide naval race in
the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
• Seminal work was The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783 (1890),
asserting naval and merchant marine assets were the key reasons England,
France, Holland, and Spain won wars enabling them to seize overseas colonies,
eliminate enemy access to these colonies, and exploit their natural resources.
• Proposal that countries should use their resources when not at war to construct a
maritime apparatus that was capable of promoting commercial activities as well
as military ones – a unique idea for the time.
• History has changed Mahan’s assumptions. When Mahan presented his ideas,
there were limited methods of communicating and transporting ideas as well as
goods from one part of the world to the other.
Sergei Gorshkov (1910-1988)
• Admiral and commander-in-chief of the
Soviet Navy (1956-1985)
• Argued for the necessity of expanded sea
power for world power status.
• Transformed the Soviet navy from a coastal
force to a blue water maritime power with
aircraft carriers and submarines capable of
challenging U.S. naval supremacy globally.
Golbery do Couto e Silva (1911-1987)
• Brazilian military figure involved with that country’s Superior
War College.
• In works such as Brazilian Geopolitics (1981), advocated
exclusive Brazilian leadership in South America.
• Favored an anti-Communist partnership with the U.S. to
protect South Atlantic maritime waters from a Soviet attack
between the Atlantic Narrows and West African bulge.
• Distrusted adjacent Spanish-speaking countries such as
Argentina, Colombia, and Peru whom he believed wanted to
encircle Brazil.
• Advocating expanding internal Brazilian frontiers by developing
the Amazon and Brazil’s northeastern and southern regions.
• Incorporated Mackinder and Mahan into his writings.
Why authoritarian populist leaders
lose reelection (US, Brazil)
• Hard to sustain popularity after initial victory
• Absence of experience in government
• Promise radical break from status quo
• Willingness to break with the political establishment
• After winning, they lose outsider status
• Advantage fades with time
• Lack of experience leads to avoidable mistakes
• Struggle with basic competence and gross mismanagement
 Empires
Ottoman

Assyrian Byzantine

Hittite Mongol
Roman
Egyptian British
Persian
Caliphate
US
Greek

Mayan Aztec

Inca

2000 1000 0 1000 2000

B.C. A.D.
Why do empires collapse?
Egyptian Empire 3000-332 B.C. – centuries-long drought, economic crises/foreign invaders
Hittite Empire 1650-1180 B.C. - Large-scale migrations of other peoples into parts of the empire
Greek Empire 1200-323 B.C. - Death of Alexander the Great
Assyria Empire 900–609 B.C. - Prolonged war almost 20 years with Mesopotamian kingdoms
Persian Empire 558–331 B.C. - Failed attempt to invade Greece
Roman Empire 27 B.C.-476 - Odoacer deposed the last Roman emperor of the West, Romulus
Augustulus
Byzantine Empire 330–1453 - Fall of Constantinople in 1453 A.D. to the Ottomans
Mayan Empire 250–900 - Overpopulation, environmental degradation, warfare, shifting trade
routes and extended drought
Caliphate Empire 632–1258 - Mongol destruction of Baghdad in 1258
Mongol Empire 1206–1368 - Military failures and fragmented empire
Ottoman Empire 1299–1923 - After WW1 the empire was dismantled
Aztec Empire 1325–1521 - Conquered by the Spanish in 1521
Inca Empire 1400–1533 - Weakened by disease, empire ended after arrival of the Spanish
British Empire 1601-1997 - The First and Second World Wars caused economic devastation
US Empire 1945 - ?
GLOBALIZATI
ON
What is globalization?
• A process by which ideas, knowledge, information,
goods and services spread around the world.
• Makes the world more accessible to everyone.
What’s included in the ‘global
economy’
• Those who organize & sustain it
• States & governments
• International organizations & association
• Those who play a role in it
• Capitalists & investors
• International financial institutions (IFIs)
• Production managers
• Consumers
• Labor
• Those marginal but connected to it
• The global poor, small farmers
• Grey & black marketeers
• Transborder flows of goods, information, money, people, other things
1st Wave of Globalization
By the end of the 18th century, Great Britain had
started to dominate the world both geographically,
through the establishment of the British Empire and
technologically, with innovations like the steam
engine, the industrial weaving machine and more.
1. The age of exploration: colonial expansion,
discovery of America, etc
2. End of the age of empires
3. Container shipping growth (power of the sea)
4. First industrial revolution
2nd and 3rd Waves of Globalization
The end of the World War II marked a new beginning for the global economy.
Under the leadership of a new hegemon, the US, and aided by the technologies
of the Second Industrial Revolution, like the car and the plane, global trade
started to rise once again. At first, this happened in two separate tracks, as the
Iron Curtain divided the world into two spheres of influence. But as of 1989,
when the Iron Curtain fell, globalization became a truly global phenomenon.
1. The age of imperialism
2. 2nd industrial revolution
3. End of WWII
4. Post WW1 and WW2 settlement, IMF, World Bank, roots of WTO
5. 3rd industrial revolution
6. New technology – internet
7. Era of de-colonization
8. Fall and disintegration of the Soviet Union, growth of BRICS Economies
9. Trade bloc growth (NAFTA or USMCA ; EU)
4th Wave of Globalization
In a world increasingly dominated by two global
powers, the US and China, the new frontier of
globalization is the cyber world. The digital economy,
in its infancy during the third wave of globalization, is
now becoming a major force.
1. Development of Infrastructural corridors (CPEC,
BRI, B3W, etc)
2. Digital globalization (e-commerce, digital services,
3D printing, robotics, artificial intelligence)
3. Threatened by cross-border hacking and
cyberattacks
Types of globalization
• Economic
• Social
• Political
• Cultural
• Technological
• Financial
• Environmental
• Criminal
• Military
Economic globalization
Refers to the interconnectedness of economies through
trade and the exchange of resources
• PROS:
• More opportunities for workers
• Reduction in global extreme poverty
• Living standards have gone up
• Increased per- capita
• Increased income
• CONS:
• Job loss in developed markets
• Increased exploitation
• Increased power to businesses to influence governments
Social globalization
Refers to the sharing of ideas and information between and
through different countries. in today's world, the Internet and
social media is at the heart of this but also includes
internationally popular movies, books, and television
• PROS
• Increased exposure
• Starts dialogue for international issues
• CONS
• Loss of localization
• More prone to contagious diseases
Political globalization
The development and growing influence of international
organizations such as the UN or WHO means governmental action
takes place at an international level.
• PROS
• Formation of international organization
• Healthy competition between nations
• Decentralization of the nation-state
• Collective effort towards common problems
• CONS
• Politics and business get intertwined – companies try to
influence political parties in the country; this allows foreign
interests to sway the political wind according to their desire
• Softening of national boundaries – easier mobility
Cultural globalization

Representative of not only its region and language but also the
mindset and mentality of its inhabitants. Facilitated by the
information revolution, speed of satellite communication,
telecommunication networks, information technology and the
internet.
• PROS
• Fusion of different cultures
• Finding like-minded people through the internet, even from oceans away.
• Friendly approach and socializing features in youth are well
appreciated
• CONS
• Some cultures are fading away in the colors of westernization
• Broken family structures and increased divorces are in trend.
Technological globalization

Technology influences all aspects of the world. The internet, cloud

computing, and high-speed mobility have accelerated globalization.
• PROS
• Growth of tech-based startups and small business
• International and local mobile banking
• More opportunities for unskilled workers
• CONS
• Increased consumer spending on impulsive purchases
• Increase in fake news – social media has led to rampant
propaganda and fake news
• Increased inequality and digital divide
• Job loss for manual laborers
Financial globalization
Can be seen through interaction of the world’s financial systems – ex: stock markets; what happens
in Asian markets affects the North American markets

Environmental globalization
The consequence of all the after-effects of other types of globalization. Globalization increases
our per capita consumption, putting more pressure on natural resources which badly affects the
ecological cycle.
Although industrialization is part of globalization, harmful chemicals have been thrown into the
environment, have a major affect on the climate.

Criminal globalization
Intercontinental spread of global crime and its impact on governments and individuals (terrorist
attacks, human trafficking, drug trafficking, piracy)

Military globalization
US, NATO and UN peacekeeping forces playing a role as global police and mediating local
conflicts.
Advantages of globalization
• Increased free trade between markets
• Global mass media ties the world together and increases communication
allowing vital information to be shared around the world
• Greater ease and speed of transportation for goods and people
• Reduction of the likelihood of war between developed nations
• Increases concerns of environmental protection in developed nations
• Increased competitiveness leads to cheaper goods for consumers and better
quality (global sourcing)
• Increased international labor mobility has let to an increase in Skilled Workers
• Lower cost of production as companies move manufacturing to cheaper locations
• The speed of the internet has led to an improvement in Education
• Increased movement of labor leads to an increase in the spread of different
cultural ideas and cultural diversity
• The GDP of developing countries has increased twice as much as before, leading
to an overall reduction in poverty
• In the long term, increased global trade is likely to lead to the creation of more
employment in all countries that are involved.
Disadvantages of globalization
• Exploitation of underdeveloped countries and of cheap labor
• Accelerates the spread of Pandemics
• Increased relative poverty and inequality; uneven wealth distribution
• Increased vulnerability and instability
• Adverse effects on social security and social welfare as governments turn to private
companies to handle education, health care and other areas. As a result, poor people
face more difficulties due to a lack of access.
• Harmful effects of consumerism
• Globalism increases consumerism. People attracted by goods and advertisements
could try to earn money by unfair or illegal means to purchase those goods
• Gender insensitivity; the interests and concerns of women, particularly
poor women, have been ignored.
• Destruction of the environment in the name of economic development
• Cultural homogenization and loss of indigenous languages
• Blind support for countries with human rights and other abuses because a
similar ideology groups the nations together
• Over standardization of products through global branding, leading to a lack
of product diversity and creating barriers to entry for small, local producers
What slows globalization
Terrorist attacks
 Temporarily halts flights and/or goods transportation
 Temporarily slows trade
 Slows or completely halts immigration
 Crashes stock markets
Nationalist political movements
 Slows or halts immigration
 Tighter controls on borders or closes borders
 Increased trade protectionism
Pandemics
 Closes borders
 Slows or halts immigration
 Slows or halts entire economies
 Disrupts supply chains during and after pandemic
 Forces industry disruptions
What increases globalization
Advances in technology
 Internet
 Faster travel options
Advances in telecommunications
 4G and 5G technologies increasing speed of communication
Open border political movements
Natural disasters
• Countries come together to assist when catastrophic events
happen (major earthquakes, global warming)
Terrorist attacks
• Can unite countries against a common enemy
Hegemonic stability theory
• A single powerful state (a hegemon) is necessary to
create and maintain an international monetary and
economic system
• Time periods without a hegemon have a lot of
conflict and uncoordinated economic nationalism
• Neither US nor UK coordinated the global economy in
1920s or 1930s
• In the 1920s and 1930s, nations traded less, and
imposed tariffs and quotas
• The result was total war from 1939-1945
Hegemonic stability theory
• Central idea: The stability of the International System requires
a single dominant state to articulate and enforce the rules of
interaction among the most important members of the system.
• To be a Hegemon, a state must have 3 attributes:
• The capability to enforce the rules of the system
• The will to do so
• A commitment to a system which is perceived as mutually beneficial
to the major states
• Capability rests upon 3 attributes
• A large, growing economy
• Dominance in a leading technological or economic sector
• Political power backed up by projective military power
What does the hegemon do
• The system is collective good which means that it is plagued by a ‘free rider’ syndrome.
Thus, the hegemon must induce or coerce other states to support the system.
• The US system tries to produce democracy and capitalism; thus, it champions human
rights and free trade.
• Other nations will try to enjoy the benefits of these institutions but will try to avoid paying
the cost of producing them. Thus, the US must remain committed to free trade even if its
major trading partners erect barriers to trade. The US can erect its own barriers, but then
the system will collapse.
• Over time, there is an uneven growth of power within the system as new technologies and
methods are developed. An unstable system will result if economic, technological, and
other changes erode the international hierarchy and undermine the position of the
dominant state. Pretenders to hegemonic control will emerge if the benefits of the system
are viewed as unacceptably unfair.
• Side payments (hegemon gives subsidies, aid to smaller states) and public goods
(economic and security) create incentive to cooperate (no motivation to challenge)
• Costs of challenging hegemon are prohibitive (no opportunity of successful challenge)