Corrosion

Corrosion
• Corrosion has been defined as a destructive chemical
and electrochemical reaction of a metal with its
environment (like O2, moisture, CO2 etc.) which
disfigures metallic products leading to reduction in
their thickness and also causes loss of useful
properties such as malleability, ductility, electrical
conductivity and optical refractivity.
• Except few metals such as gold, platinum (called
noble metals) all are prone to corrosion.
 Corrosion
Typical examples of corrosion

1. Rusting of iron due to formation of hydrated ferric

oxide.
2. Tarnishing of silver wares in H2S laden air due to
formation of silver sulphide
 Causes of Corrosion
1. Metals are electropositive in nature. Most of metals
exist in nature in combined form i.e. in form of
compound such as oxides , chlorides , sulphides
and hydroxide in their ores.
2. In combined state , metals are stable and are in
lower energy state.
3. Metals are obtained by extraction of their Ores by
expenditure of energy.
4. Hence pure metal is less stable and is in higher
energy state.
 Causes of Corrosion
• So, metals have a tendency to go back to the ionic
state and hence metal atoms are prone to get
attacked by environment .
• This is the main reason for corrosion of metals.
 Theories of Corrosion
A. Chemical or Dry Corrosion
• Oxidation corrosion
• Corrosion by other gases
• Liquid metal corrosion

B. Electrochemical or Wet
Corrosion
 Types of Corrosion
A. Chemical or dry Corrosion
• It involves direct chemical attack of atmospheric
gases like CO2, O2, H2S, SO2, halogen, moisture and
inorganic acid vapours on metal surface, in absence
of liquid medium.
• Example, tarnishing of silver ware in H2S laden air.
• It is of following types –
1. Oxidation corrosion
2. Corrosion by other gases
3. liquid metal corrosion
 1. Oxidation Corrosion (Dry)
Occurs
• Due to direct chemical reaction of atmosphere oxygen
with metal surface forming metal oxide.
• Absence of moisture
• Increases with increase in temperature
Mechanism
• on exposure to atm., metal gets oxidized to form metal
ions M (S) → M +n  + ne-
• Electrons lost by metal are taken up by oxygen to forms
oxide ions 1/2O2 (g) + 2e- → O2
2M + n/2O2 → 2M+n  + nO2- → M2On (Metal oxide)
 Types of Oxide Layers
1. Stable
• Oxide layer is thick and nonporous.
• It is impervious and act as protective coating,
thus prevent further corrosion. Examples; Al , Cu

2. Unstable
• Oxide layer formed ,decomposes back to metal and
oxygen.
• No effective corrosion. Examples; gold, silver,
platinum
 Types of Oxide Layers
3. Volatile
• Oxide layer formed is volatilised and metal surface is
again exposed to react further.
• Metal suffers continuous and rapid corrosion. Example;
molybdenum. Mo + 3O2 → 2MoO3

4. Porous
• Metal oxide layer being porous allows further corrosion
of metal.
• Corrosion continues till entire metal is converted into
metal oxide. Example; oxide of alkali metals and
alkaline earth metals.
 Pilling – Bed Worth Rule
Specific Volume Ratio = Volume of oxide formed
Volume of metal

1. A protective and non-porous metal oxide layer has

volume equal to or greater than the volume of
metal from which it is formed. SVR ≥ 1
2. A non-protective and porous metal oxide layer has
volume lesser than the volume of metal from which
it is formed. SVR ≤ 1
2. Corrosion By Other Gases(Dry)
1. 2 AgCl + Cl2 → AgCl (non porous layer)
2. Fe + H2S → FeS (porous) + H2
3. Sn + 2 Cl2 → SnCl4 (volatile layer)

3. Liquid Metal Corrosion (Dry)

4. Occurs due to the action of flowing liquids at high
temperature on solid metals or alloys.
5. Observed in nuclear reaction where Na metal used as a
coolant leads to corrosion of Cd.
B. Electrochemical or Wet Corrosion
• Occurs when corrosion takes place by the transfer
of electrons from anodic part of a metal to
cathodic part through a conducting solution, it is
called electrochemical corrosion.
• Mechanism
1. Development of anodic and cathodic areas on
metal surface.
2. At anode—oxidation of metal takes place. Metal
looses e- and result in formation of metal ion.
 B. Electrochemical or Wet corrosion
3. the electron released at anode is absorbed at
cathode. Non metallic ions like OH- OR O2- are
formed at cathode.
4. Metallic and non metallic ions diffuse towards
each other through conducting medium.
5. And result into formation of corrosion product
somewhere between cathodic and anodic area.
Example; Rusting of iron
 Example; Rusting of iron
• Oxidation at anode –
Fe → Fe 2+ + 2e-
• Reduction at cathode –
H2O → 2H+ + 2OH-
2H+ + 2e- → H2
• Formation of Rust
Fe2+ + 2OH- → Fe(OH)2
Fe(OH)2 + 1\2 O2 + H2O → Fe2O3.3H2O
• Rust is deposited near cathode.
Example; Rusting of iron
 Chemical (Dry) Electrochemical (Wet)
Occurs in the absence of Occurs in the presence of moisture
moisture or electrolyte

Involves direct attack of Involves formation of

chemicals on the metal surface electrochemical cells
Even a homogeneous metal Heterogeneous surface alone gets
surface gets corroded corroded
Corrosion products are produced Corrosion occurs at anode but rust is
at the site of corrosion deposited at cathode
Process of corrosion is uniform Depends on the size of the anodic
part of the metal
It is a self controlled slow process It is a continuous, Rapid Process

It adopts adsorption mechanism It follows electrochemical reaction

 Factors Affecting Corrosion
1. Nature of the Metal
• Position of metal in Galvanic series
• Purity and Physical state of the metal
• Nature of the oxide film
• Relative areas of Cathode & anode
• Nature of products of corrosion
2. Environmental factors
• Temp. & Humidity, Effect of pH
• Presence of impurities in atmosphere
• Nature of electrolyte
• Effects of oxygen, oxidizers, velocity, oxygen conc. cell
 1. Nature of the Metal
I. Position of metal in Galvanic series
• Metals with higher reduction potentials do not corrode
easily. They are noble metals like, gold , platinum, silver.
• Whereas metals with lower reduction potentials ,
readily undergo corrosion. e.g. metals like Zn, Mg, Al .
• For eg., the potential difference between
iron and copper is 0.78V which is more
than that between iron and tin (0.3V).
Therefore, iron corrodes faster when in
contact with copper than that with tin
Galvanic Series
 1. Nature of the Metal
II. Purity of the metal
• Impurity of a metal generally causes heterogeneity and
form minute electrochemical cells and the anodic part
gets corroded.
• For eg: Zn metal containing impurity such as Pb ( or) Fe
undergoes corrosion .
• The rate and extent of corrosion increases with extent
of impurities.
 1. Nature of the Metal
III. Physical state of the metal
• The rate of corrosion is influenced by physical state of
the metal (such as grain size, orientation of crystals,
stress, etc).
• The smaller the grain size of the metal or alloy, the
greater will be its solubility and hence greater will be
its corrosion.
• Moreover, areas under stress, even in a pure metal,
tend to be anodic and corrosion takes place at these
areas.
 1. Nature of the Metal
IV. Nature of the oxide film
• Corrosion product formed as metal oxide may act as
protective film, if it is stable, insoluble, and non porous. it
prevents further corrosion by acting as barrier between
metal surface and corrosion medium.
• if corrosion product is unstable, porous, and soluble, it
further enhances corrosion.
• Eg. in oxidizing env., metals like Al, Cr, Ti, etc., are highly
passive as their oxides form protective films on the metal
surface, preventing further corrosion. Metals like Fe, Zn,
Mg etc., do not form any protective film and are highly
susceptible for continuous corrosion.
 1. Nature of the Metal
V. Area effect - Ratio of cathodic to anodic region
• If the metal has small anode and large cathodic region,
corrosion rate is very high. As the ratio decreases
corrosion rate further increases. This is because at anode
electrons are liberated. Which are consumed at cathodic
region.
• If cathodic region is larger the liberated electrons are
rapidly consumed at cathode. This further enhances, the
anodic reaction leading to increase in overall rate of
corrosion.
 1. Nature of the Metal
VI. Nature of the corrosion product
A. Solubility of corrosion products
• If the corrosion product is soluble in the corroding
medium, then corrosion proceeds at a faster rate
otherwise if it is insoluble, corrosion will be suppressed
e.g.: PbSO4 formation in case of Pb in H2SO4.
B. Volatility of corrosion products
• If the corrosion product is volatile , it evaporates as
soon as it is formed, there by leaving the underlying
metal surface exposed for further attack. This causes
rapid and continuous corrosion. For eg: Mo forms MoO 3
volatile oxide.
 2. Environmental factors
I. Temperature
• With increase of temperature, the corrosion rate also
increases because the reaction as well as diffusion rate
of ions in the corrosion medium increases.
II. Humidity
• The higher the humidity of the atmosphere the greater
is rate and extent of corrosion because the moisture
acts as medium for O2 in air and behaves as an
electrolyte.
• For eg: atmospheric corrosion of iron is slow in dry air
compound to moist air.
 2. Environmental factors
II. Humidity
• Iron combines with O2 and water to form ferrous
hydroxide which combines with atmospheric CO2 to
form ferrous bicarbonate.
• 2 Fe + O2 + 2H2O → 2Fe(OH)2
• Fe(OH)2 + CO2 → Fe(HCO3)2

III. Effect of pH
• Generally acidic media are more corrosive than alkaline
and neutral media. Hence metals may be virtually
classified according to pH range in which they will be
affected (or) resistant.
 2. Environmental factors
III. Effect of pH
• However amphoteric metals like Al, Pb etc. are
corroded in alkaline medium. Zn is rapidly corroded
in weakly acidic solutions.
 2. Environmental factors
IV. Presence of impurities in atmosphere
• Atmosphere in industrial areas contains corrosive
gases like CO2 , H2S, SO2 and fumes of HCl, H2SO4 etc.
• In presence of these gases, the acidity of the liquid
adjacent to the metal surfaces increases and its
electrical conductivity also increases, thereby the
rate of corrosion increases.
 2. Environmental factors
V. Conductance
• As the conductivity of the corrosion medium
increases, the corrosion rate also increases.
• Higher the conductivity of the medium, faster the
ions can migrate between the anodic and cathodic
regions of the corrosion cell, in turn, faster will be
the exchange of electrons at the electrode surfaces.
• This facilitates higher corrosion rate.
 2. Environmental factors
VI. Nature of ions present
• Chloride ions present in the medium destroy the
passive film, while silicate in the medium leads to
the formation of insoluble film over the metal
surface.
 2. Environmental factors
VII.  Effect of oxygen and oxidizers
• Oxygen plays an important corroding medium.
• If the metal is exposed to different concentration of
oxygen, differential aeration corrosion takes place.
• The region which is less exposed to oxygen acts as
anode hence undergoes corrosion and region
exposed to high oxygen concentration acts cathode
hence doesn't undergo corrosion.
Types of Corrosion
 Galvanic Corrosion
• It is also called bimetallic corrosion or differential
metallic corrosion.
• It occurs when two dissimilar metals (for example,
Zn and Cu) are electrically connected and exposed
to an electrolyte and then the metal higher in the
electrochemical series undergoes corrosion.
• For example, if Zn and Cu are connected, Zn acts
as anode and undergoes corrosion,whereas Cu
acts as cathode.
 Mechanism: In a Zn – Cu couple
• (At anode) Zn Zn2+ + 2e–
• The reaction at the cathode depends upon the environment.
• Acidic environment:
2H+ + 2e– H2 (evolution of hydrogen)
• Alkaline or neutral environment:
1/2O2 + H2O + 2e– 2OH–
• Zn2+ and 2OH– ions interact to form Zn (OH)2. Hence, Zn
dissolves and Cu is protected.
• The common examples of galvanic corrosion :
• Use of Cu pipes in conjunction with iron pipes in water
distribution system.
 Concentration cell corrosion
• Concentration cell corrosion takes place when
different areas of a metal surface are in contact
with an electrolyte of different concentration
(caustic embrittlement) or varying aeration (pitting
corrosion, waterline corrosion, corrosion under a
block of wood or a drop of water, etc).
• The difference in electrolyte/air concentration may
be because of local temperature differences or
inadequate stirring or slow diffusion of metal ions
 Differential aeration corrosion (DAC)

• This is the most common type of concentration

cell corrosion. It occurs when one part of the
metal is exposed to a different air concentration
than the other. There will be a difference of
potential between differently aerated areas.
• Experimental observations have shown that
• Poorly oxygenated areas become anodic and
• Highly oxygenated areas become cathodic.
• Corrosion occurs at the anode.
 Waterline corrosion
• If a Zn metal is partially immersed in a neutral
solution (say NaCl) and the solution is not
stirred, the parts above and close to the
waterline are well aerated and act as cathode.
• Areas deep inside the solution are anodic, as
the concentration of oxygen is less. Thus, a
potential develops that causes a flow of
current between two areas of the same metal.
Zn dissolves at the anodic area.
 Pitting corrosion
• It occurs in areas of pits, cavities and pinholes that
penetrate deeply within the metals.
• The pit is oxygen deficient and acts as anode, whereas the
plane surface is oxygen-rich and acts as cathode.
• As the area of anode is small the rate of corrosion will be
high. Anodic metal dissolves and the pit gradually deepens
resulting in the weakening of the metal in these areas.
• Pitting of metal generally occurs because of breakdown or
cracking in the protective film on the metal surface at
specific points. It may be due to scratches, surface
roughness, chemical attack, stresses and strains, etc.
Pitting corrosion
Prevention of Pitting Corrosion
• Use materials with appropriate alloying elements
designed to minimize pitting susceptibility. e.g.
molybdenum in stainless steel.
• Provide a uniform surface through proper cleaning,
heat treating and surface finishing.
• Reduce the concentration of aggressive species in
the test medium, such as chlorides, sulfates, etc.
• Use inhibitors to minimize the effect of pitting,
wherever possible.
• Make the surface of the specimen smooth and shiny
and do not allow any impurities to deposit on the
surface.
 Drop Corrosion
• If a drop of electrolyte solution, block of wood, leaf,
metal or stone is in contact with a metal surface,
rusting occurs in the central region beneath the drop,
block of wood, leaf, metal or stone.
• The area around these objects is oxygen-rich and
hence becomes cathodic, whereas the central region
beneath these objects is poorly oxygenated/aerated
and hence becomes anodic
• At this region, Fe2+ is oxidized to Fe3+ and gets
corroded.
Drop corrosion
Stress corrosion (season cracking)
• The metals develop internal stress during manufacture process like
fabrication, heat treatment, rolling, insufficient annealing, etc.
• Thermodynamically, areas under stress are at higher energy level.
Therefore, they have high electrode potential and act as anode.
The stress-free areas are at lower electrode potential and act as
cathode.
• The anodic area becomes highly reactive and is attacked even by a
mild corrosive environment, resulting in the formation of a crack.
• Example: Underground steel pipelines used for transmitting oil and
gas are under high internal pressure and hence fail by stress
corrosion cracking.
 Stress corrosion

Examples of stress corrosion:

Caustic embrittlement: It is corrosion in boilers due to excess NaOH. Inside the boiler
the riveted areas, and areas of bends and joints are under great stress and hence
undergo corrosion.
 Crevice corrosion
• It is produced at gaps in the region of contact between
metals with metals or nonmetals.
• The gaps are very narrow so that the liquid penetrates in
them and stagnates.
• It occurs at crevice between different metallic objects such
as bolts, rivets, washers, nuts, etc.
• Supply of oxygen is restricted in the areas of the crevices;
hence, differential aeration corrosion takes place.
• The areas of the crevice become anodic and undergo
corrosion. Corrosion is further accelerated by the deposition
of dirt, scales, debris, etc.
 Crevice corrosion

• In case aluminium component (nut, bolt) and steel parts are coupled
together in, say, sea water, then both galvanic and crevice corrosion will
occur and then it can be termed as galvanic crevice corrosion. The rate of
such corrosion will be very high.
 Intergranular corrosion
• The grain boundaries in metals are more active than the
grains because of segregation of impurities and depletion
of protective elements.
• Certain compounds precipitate along the grain boundaries.
The precipitated compounds as well as the grain centers
behave as cathode, whereas the grain boundaries behave
as anode.
• Stainless steel is an alloy of iron, carbon and chromium.
During its welding, chromium carbide gets precipitated at
the grain boundaries. So preferential attack along grain
boundaries occurs.
 Intergranular Corrosion
• Intergranular corrosion can be prevented by proper
heat treatment followed by rapid quenching to avoid
the heterogeneous precipitation that usually takes
place due to slow cooling.
 Soil corrosion
• It is also called underground corrosion. There are various factors
responsible for the corrosiveness of the soil. Some of them are
• Acidity of soil (soils containing organic acids derived from humus are
quite corrosive to steel, zinc, lead and copper).
• Moisture of the soil
• Electrical conductivity
• Electrolytes (dissolved salts)
• Degree of aeration (porosity)
• Presence of bacteria and microorganisms
• Underground structures like water mains, cables, etc. passing from
one soil to the other suffer from corrosion because of differential
aeration in different parts of the soil. The presence of electrolytes
enhances the rate of corrosion.
 Microbiological corrosion
• This type of corrosion causes deterioration of metal directly or
indirectly by microbes such as bacteria, algae, moulds or fungi.
Depending upon whether the microorganisms thrive in the presence
or absence of air they can be aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms.
• Anaerobic conditions: Corrosion of iron and steel is caused by
sulphate-reducing microorganisms (Desulfovibrio desulpuricans),
which grow in anaerobic conditions. These microorganisms grow in the
pH range 5–9 with temperatures between 20 °C and 30 °C and require
sulphates for their nourishment.
• Aerobic conditions : Aerobic bacteria such as sulphur microorganisms
like bacteria of the group Thiobacillus oxidize the sulphur present in
their cells to sulphuric acid, which is responsible for corrosion and
attack on iron.
 Microbiological corrosion
• The microbiological corrosion of iron takes place as follows:
• 8H2O 8H+ +8OH–
• Anodic solution of iron
• 4Fe + 8H+ 4Fe2+ + 8H
• H2SO4 + 8H H2S + 4H2O (depolarisation due to bacterial
activity).
• Fe2++ H2S FeS + 2H+
• 3Fe2+ +6OH- 3Fe (OH)2
• The corrosion products are ferrous hydroxide Fe (OH) 2 and
black iron sulphide.
 Protection against Corrosion (Corrosion Control)

• The various methods by which corrosion can be

controlled and prevented are as follows:
1. Protection by proper designing
2. Material selection
3. Modifying the environment
4. Modification of properties of the metal
5. Use of inhibitors
6.Cathodic protection or electrochemical protection
7. Use of protective coating.
 Protection by proper designing
• Important design principles are as follows
• (i) Avoid direct contact of two dissimilar metals in a corroding
medium. If it cannot be avoided then use an insulating fitting
between them to avoid direct metal–metal electrical contact. For
example, metal washers should be covered with plastic washers to
avoid direct contact between the two metals.
• (ii) When two dissimilar metals in direct contact are to be used then
• They should be as close as possible in the galvanic series.
• The anodic material should have a large area and the area of
cathodic material should be as small as possible.
• The screws, bolts, nuts and welds should be of less reactive metals
so that they can act as cathode with small area.
 Material selection
• Using pure metals:
• Impurities in metals cause heterogeneity that leads to corrosion.
• Pure metal is less prone to corrosion. However, pure metals are
expensive and are usually weak and do not possess the required
strength.
• Using metal alloys:
• The metals can be made corrosion-resistant by alloying them
with suitable alloying elements. For example, chromium is used
as alloying metal for iron and steel as it produces an exceptionally
coherent oxide film, which protects the steel from further
corrosion.
Modifying the environment
 Modification of the properties of the metal
• The properties of the metals can be modified to
decrease the effects of corrosion. The properties can be
modified by
• (i) Alloying: Alloys are more resistant to corrosion than
pure metals.
• (ii) Refining: As pure metals are more corrosion-
resistant, refining can increase the corrosion resistance
of the metal. The amount of S and P in steels and C in
stainless steels is reduced by refining.
• (iii) Annealing: It is a heat treatment given to the metals
to reduce residual stress.
 Use of Inhibitors
• (i) Anodic inhibitors: They get adsorbed on the anodic surface
forming a passive film on it (example chromates, phosphates,
tungstates, etc.), thereby decreasing the corrosion rate.
• (ii) Cathodic inhibitors: They slow down the reactions taking place
at the cathode (i.e. , H2 evolution in acidic medium). For example,
organic inhibitors like amines, mercaptans, substituted ureas and
thioureas, heavy metal soaps, etc, decrease the H 2 evolution
process by decreasing the diffusion of H+ ions considerably.
• Inhibitors like Mg, Zn or Ni salts react with the hydroxyl ions at
the cathode forming corresponding hydroxides that deposit at
the cathode and decrease the O2 absorption process.
Cathodic (Electrical protection)
The metal to be protected is connected to an external anode
and a D.C. current is passed so that all areas of the metal
surface become cathodic and do not corrode. This method is
especially used for underground iron pipes. Here, the iron pipe
or tank is connected to a more electropositive metal like
magnesium or aluminum. The more electropositive metal acts
like anode (supplies electrons) and iron acts like cathode
(receives electrons). Thus, iron is protected by turning it as a
cathode. Hence, the method is called ‘cathodic protection’ .
Cathodic protection can be achieved in two ways:
1. By Sacrificial Anodes.
2. By Impressed Current.
Cathodic Protection - Sacrificial Anodes

• These anodes consist of the highly reactive metal

like Mg.
• To protect pipes, rods of Mg buried near the pipes
and connected to them by wires.
• Thus Galvanic cells with high E.M.F are setup with
surface to be protected made cathodic.
• The cost of replacement of corroded anodic Mg is
much less than replacing pipes.
Cathodic Protection - Impressed Current
Method
• The object to be protected is made cathode of an
electrolytic cell by connecting it to negative terminal of a
D.C source.
• This is done by rectifying an A.C line or using D.C source.
• The positive terminal is connected to scrap iron.
 Anodic protection
• Anodic protection is applicable to the metals
like aluminium which become passive by the
deposition of oxide films. Similarly titanium
which becomes passive in the presence of
chloride ions can be protected by anodic
protection method even in a solution of HCl.
By an externally impressed anodic current, a
protective passive film is deposited on the
metal surface.
 Use of protective coatings
• The metal structure to be protected is covered
with metallic or nonmetallic coatings. e
metallic coatings often used are zinc, tin,
nickel, chromium, aluminium, copper, etc.
• These coatings separate the base metal from
the corrosive environment and protect the
base metal from corrosion.
 Metallic coatings
• (i) Anodic coatings: These coatings are sacrificial coatings in
which the base metal (metal to be protected) is coated with
a more reactive metal so that the coating metal behaves as
an anode and undergoes corrosion in preference to the base
metal. For example, coating of Zn on Fe (galvanisation)
• (ii) Cathodic coatings: It is coating of a noble or less reactive
metal on the base metal. The coating metal is corrosion-
resistant and hence provides only barrier protection to the
base metal. If the coating metal develops a crack or develops
pores then the base metal being more reactive will undergo
corrosion. For example, coating of Sn on iron (tinning)
 Methods of Application of Metal Coatings
• 1. Hot dipping: In this method, the base metal
is immersed in a bath of molten metal,
covered by a molten flux layer (usually zinc
chloride).The flux cleans the base metal and
prevents oxidation of the molten coating
metal. Galvanisation and tinning are the most
common examples using hot dipping method.
 Galvanising
• The process of coating iron and steel articles with a thin coat of zinc to
prevent them from rusting is called galvanisation.
 Uses
• For coating iron sheets, wires, pipes, bolts,
screws, buckets, etc, it may be noted here that
zinc gets dissolved in dilute acids to form toxic
compounds. Hence, galvanised utensils cannot
be used for storing food articles.
 Tinning
• It is the process of coating iron or steel articles
with tin.
 Uses
• Because of the nontoxic nature of tin, tinning
is widely used for coating steel, copper and
brass sheets used for manufacturing
containers for storing food articles.
• Tinned copper sheets are used for making
utensils.
 2. Electroplating
• In this method, the metal to be plated is made cathode and placed in a
bath containing the ions of the metal to be deposited. The anode is either
inert or made of the coating metal. When current is passed, the coating
metal ions migrate and get deposited in the form of a thin layer. For
example, coating of zinc over metal rod.
 3. Metal cladding
• In this method, the base metal is sandwiched
between two layers of the protecting metal. It
is then passed through rollers under the
action of heat and pressure so that these
layers adhere to the base metal. The cladding
materials used are corrosion-resistant like
nickel, copper, silver, lead, platinum, etc.
 4. Spraying
• This type of coating is applied to finished structures
and is accomplished by spraying a stream of
‘atomized’ droplets of molten metal onto the
roughened surface of the metal to be protected,
with the help of a spraying gun.
• Before spraying, the surface is prepared with sharp
sand blast. The molten metal is then sprayed. The
sprayed coatings are continuous with very little
pores and a sealer or paint is applied on such a
coating to provide a smooth surface finish.
 Nonmetallic coatings
• Nonmetallic coatings may be organic or inorganic.
• 1. Organic coatings: They are inert organic barriers that
provide corrosion resistance as well as embellish it.
Organic coatings include paints, varnishes, enamels and
lacquers, etc.
• 2. Inorganic coatings: Inorganic coatings form chemical
bonds with the base metal and provide protection
against oxidation at high temperature, weathering and
corrosion. The commonly used inorganic coatings are
phosphate coatings and chromate coatings.
Electroless Plating
 Passivity
• It is defined as the phenomenon in which a metal or an alloy exhibits a
much higher corrosion resistance than expected from its position in the
electrochemical series.
• Ti, which is above Ag in the electrochemical series, is less reactive than
Ag.
• Similarly, in a Zn–Al couple, Zn which is below Al in the electrochemical
series, is corroded. These observations are opposite to those predicted by
the electrochemical series. This is because Ti and Al develop strongly
adhering oxide layers on their surface, thereby making their effective
electrode potential more positive (or less negative). These metals are said
to be rendered passive.
• Passivity is because of the development of a highly protective, very thin
(0.004-mm-thick) invisible oxide film on the surface of the metal. The film
so formed makes the metal behave as a noble metal. The presence of
ample excess oxygen on the metal surface favours passivation.
 Passivation
• It is using a light coat of material such as a metal
oxide to create a shell against corrosion. It can only
occur in certain conditions and is used in micro-
electronics to enhance silicon.