University of Gondar

Technology Institute

Medical Radiation Physics: BMEG-3182

Introduction to Medical Radiation Physics

By: Mesfin Mihret

Email: mesfinemihret@gmail.com
 University of Gondar

 By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

• understand the fundamental concepts of radiation

• identify the types and sources of radiation

• recognize the application areas of ionizing radiations

 Radiation Definition

 Radiation:
• is the propagation of energy or the emission of energy (light, heat or any other) in
the form of particles or electromagnetic wave.
• comes from a source and travels through some material or through space.

• is produced by radioactive decay, nuclear fission and nuclear fusion, chemical

reactions, hot objects.
 Classification of radiation

 Radiation can be classified into:

• Ionizing radiation

• Non-ionizing radiation

Based on its energy and danger.

Classification of Radiation
 Ionizing Radiation

 It is a radiation that excite and ionize atoms of matter with which they
interact.

 Radiation with sufficient energy to remove an electron from an atom or

molecule.

 It includes:
• Particulate ionizing radiation and

• Electromagnetic ionizing radiation

 Ionizing Radiation

 Particulate ionizing Radiation:

• Charged particles
 Alpha particles

 Beta particles (electron and positron)

 Proton-the hydrogen nucleus

 Heavy ions

• Uncharged particles:
 ionize with matter indirectly such as neutron
 Ionizing Radiation

 Electromagnetic (EM) ionizing Radiation:

• Ionizing EM radiation
 Shorter wavelength

 Higher energy

 More dangerous

 Includes-Photons (X ray and gamma ray)

 Non-ionizing Radiation

 It can’t ionize with matter as it doesn’t have enough sufficient energy to

remove electrons from atoms.
• Non-ionizing EM radiation
 longer wavelength

 Lower energy

 Less dangerous

 Includes- visible, infrared, microwave, infrared, radio wave and lasers

• Nonionizing Particulate radiation includes molecules, atoms, and ions.

 Non-ionization Radiation

 Ultra Violet (UV)

• High energy EM radiations
• Can break chemical bonds  can damage DNA
• Wavelengths longer than ~10 nm
and shorter than ~400 nm
 Visible Light
• Can excite electrons and induce
photochemical reactions
• Wavelength that is visible to the human eye
(about 400–700 nm).
 Infra Red (IR)
• Generates heat
• Wavelength ~0.7 to 300 μm,
(frequency ~1 to 430 THz).
 Non-ionization Radiation

 Bright sunlight provides an irradiance of just over 1 kW.m-2 at sea

level

 Sunlight= 527 W of IR + 445 W of visible + 32 W of UV

 Non-ionization Radiation

 Microwave
• Wavelength ~1 m to 1 mm, (frequency ~300 MHz (0.3 GHz) to 300 GHz
recognize the application areas of ionizing radiations
• Radio astronomy: Most radio astronomy uses microwaves

• Heating effect
 Non-ionization Radiation

 Thermal radiation (heat)

• Surface of an object radiates its thermal
energy in the form of EM waves.
• Examples: IR radiation from a common
household radiator or electric heater; heat
and light (IR and visible EM waves)
emitted by glowing bulbs.
• Thermal radiation is generated when heat
from the movement of charged particles
within atoms is converted to
electromagnetic radiation.
 Non-ionization Radiation

 Radio wave
• Wavelengths longer than infrared light
• Natural  lightning, from
astronomical objects.
• Artificial  fixed and mobile radio
communication, broadcasting, radar
and other navigation systems, satellite
communication, computer networks
and innumerable other applications

• Long waves may cover a part of the Earth very consistently.

• Shorter waves can reflect off the ionosphere and travel around the world
 Non-ionization Radiation

 Very low frequencies (VLF)

• refers to radio frequencies (RF) of 3 kHz to 30 kHz

• Not much bandwidth  Used in radio navigation.

 Extremely low frequencies (ELF)

• describes RF from 3 to 30 Hz.
• In atmosphere science, an alternative definition is
usually given, from 3 Hz to 3 kHz.
 Radioactivity

 Electromagnetic (EM) ionizing Radiation:

• Ionizing EM radiation
 Shorter wavelength

 Higher energy

 More dangerous

 Includes- X ray and gamma ray

 Interaction of radiation with matter

 Electromagnetic (EM) ionizing Radiation:

• Ionizing EM radiation
 Shorter wavelength

 Higher energy

 More dangerous

 Includes- X ray and gamma ray

 Units of radiation

 Exposure:
• The quantity of electronic charge in coulombs (C) produced by ionization per
kilogram (kg) of AIR
(either the positive or negative charge not both).

• SI units are C / kg.

1 Roentgen = 2.58 x 10 - 4 C / kg
Wilhelm Roentgen
 Units of radiation

 Absorbed dose (D):

Energy imparted to matter in a small volume (J)

Mass of the small volume (kg)

• SI unit is the gray (Gy)

• 1 Gy = 1 Joule of energy
absorbed in 1 kg of matter = 1 Hal Gray
J/kg Courtesy of the LH Gray Trust

Conversion factor: 1 gray  100 rads

 Units of radiation

 Organ or tissue dose (Dt):

Energy imparted to organ or tissue

Dt =
Mass of the organ or tissue

More useful for radiation protection purposes

Units: Gy
 Units of Radiation

 Linear energy transfer

• Rate at which energy transferred from radiation beam to
the medium
• Density of ionisation along the track of radiation
• High LET radiations are more easily stopped
Radiation LET (keV per m)
1 MeV gamma rays 0.5
100 keV x-rays 6
20 keV betas 10
5 MeV alphas 50
 Units of Radiation

 Relative Biological effectiveness (RBE)

• Different types of radiation can be more
or less damaging

Dose of 220 kV x-rays

RBE =
Dose of radiation under test
• Both doses cause same biological end
point e.g. 10% cell survival
• RBE increases with LET
 Units of Radiation

 Radiation weighting factor

* Depending on energy
 Units of Radiation

 An introduction to radiation protection

Absorbed Dose Radiation Weighting
(in Grays) Factor (wR)

Strictly speaking this is

the absorbed dose averaged Dimensionless
over the organ or tissue quantity

Total HT =  wR x DT,R
where DT,R is the average absorbed dose to
the organ for a particular radiation type
 Units of Radiation

 An introduction to radiation protection

Unit:

Sievert (Sv)
Still dimensionally
J / kg as wR is just Rolf Sievert – 1929
a number
Conversion factor: 1 Sv  100 rem
 Units of Radiation

 Example 1
• What is the total equivalent dose to the organ (HT) if the
absorbed dose to the lungs is 0.2 mGy from x-rays?

HT = Absorbed Dose x radiation weighting factor

Radiation weighting factor for x-rays (wR) = 1 (for any

energy)

HT = 0.2 x wR = 0.2 x 1 = 0.2 mSv

Note that the units change from mGy to mSv
 Units of Radiation

 Example 2
• What is the total equivalent dose to the organ (HT) if
the absorbed dose to the lungs is 0.2 mGy from x-
rays and 0.01 mGy from alpha radiation?
HT = ∑Absorbed Dose x radiation weighting factor

Radiation weighting factor for x-rays (WR) = 1 (for any energy)

Radiation weighting factor for alpha (WR) = 20 (for any energy)

HT = 0.2 x 1 + 0.01 x 20 = 0.4 mSv

Note that the units change from mGy to mSv
 Units of Radiation

 Effective dose (E)

• Accounts for uneven irradiation of the body and
represents overall risk from whole body
exposure

E = wT X HT

HT = Equivalent dose to tissue or organ ‘T’

wT = tissue weighting factor

• Tissue weighting factors represent risks of detrimental

radiation effects to different organs or tissue
 Units of Radiation

 Effective dose (E)

• A patient receives the following equivalent (organ)
doses as a result of a chest PA x-radiograph:
Bone Marrow0.01 mSv (WT=0.12)
Thyroid 0.05 mSv (WT=0.04)
Lungs 0.17 mSv (WT=0.12)
Breast 0.09 mSv (WT=0.08)

• What is the effective dose resulting from this examination?

E = ∑ wT x HT

ET = 0.01 x 0.12 + 0.05 x 0.04 + 0.17 x 0.12 + 0.09 x 0.08 = 0.0308

mSv or 30.8 µSv
 Units of Radiation

 Summary 1
• Absorbed dose (D): energy absorbed in a medium by any type of ionizing
radiation. Unit: Gray 1 Gy  1 J/kg
• Equivalent dose (H): obtained by multiplying the ‘D’ by the radiation
weighting factor for the particular type of radiation. Unit: Sievert (Sv)

• Radiation weighting factor, wR: measure of the ability of a particular type

of radiation to cause biological damage wR  1 for , X and , 5 for
protons and 20 for  particles
• Effective dose (E): obtained by multiplying the ‘H’ to each exposed organ
by its tissue weighting factor and then summing over all of the organs

• Tissue weighting factor, wT: reflects the radio-sensitivity of a particular

tissue or organ
 Units of Radiation

 Summary 2
Units of Radiation
 Sources of Radiation

 Radiation is part of nature. All living creatures, from the beginning of

time, have been, and are still being, exposed to radiation.
We Live (And Have Always Lived) in a
“Sea of Radiation”
 Radiation sources can be classified into
• Natural Background Radiation

• Man-made Radiation sources

 Sources of radiation

 Natural Background Radiation

• Cosmic radiation

• Terrestrial radiation

• Internal radiation
 Natural Radiation Sources

 Cosmic Radiation
• The earth and all living things on it are constantly being bombarded by radiation
from other space (80% protons and 10% alpha particles)
• charged particles from the sun and stars interact with the earth’s atmosphere and
magnetic field to produce a shower of radiation.
• the amount of cosmic radiation varies in different parts of the world due to
differences in elevation and to the effects of earth’s magnetic field.
 Natural Radiation Sources

 Natural radiation is everywhere

 Natural Radiation Sources

 Terrestrial Radiation(Uranium, Actinium, Thorium decay series

• Radioactive material is found throughout nature in soil water and vegetation.

• Important radioactive elements include Uranium and Thorium and their radioactive
decay products which have been present since the earth was formed billions of years
ago.
• Some radioactive material is ingested with food and water. Radon gas, a radioactive
decay product of uranium is inhaled.
• The amount of terrestrial radiation varies in different parts of the world due to
different concentration of uranium and thorium in soil.
Modes of Exposure
 Natural Radiation Sources

 Internal Radiation
• People are exposed to radiation from radioactive material inside their bodies.
Besides radon, the most important radioactive element is naturally occurred in K-
40 but uranium and thorium are also present as well as H-3 and C-14.
• The amount of radiation from K-40 does not vary much from one person to
another. However, exposure from radon varies significantly from place to place
depending on the amount of uranium in the soil.
 Man-Made Radiation

 Radioactive material is used in:

• Medicine – Diagnostic (X ray, CT)

• Medicine – Therapeutic (Co-60, LINAC)

• Medical research (radio-pharmaceuticals)

• Industry – (X ray density gauges, well logging

 Man-Made Radiation

 Radiation in medicine:
• Radiation used in medicine is the largest source of man-made radiation. Most
exposure is from diagnostic X ray.
• Exposure of selected groups of the public:
- Diagnostic radiology (X rays)

- Nuclear medicine (radiopharmaceuticals)

- Radiotherapy (Co-60, Linacs)

 Radiation Effects

DETEMINISTIC
STOCHASTIC EFFECTS
EFFECTS
e.g.. All whole body syndromes and partial e.g. Cancer & hereditary (genetic effects)
body effects (such as Diarrhea, vomiting, Skin
erythema, cataract

Occurs due to cell killing Occurs due to cell modification

(mutation/ chromosome aberration)

Threshold dose exist Probabilistic in nature/ No threshold

Severity of symptoms increase with dose Probability/ risk or chance increases with dose

Definite to occur in all individuals beyond Occurs by chance in some individuals

threshold doses
 Radiation Effects

 Expected questions to know after studying this lecture

• What is the difference between deterministic and stochastic effects?

• Which is the most sensitive component in the cell for radiation damage?

• What is the minimum dose required to see the occurrence of deterministic

effect?
• What are the delayed effects of radiation?
 Radiation Effects

 Factors that determine the biological effects of radiation:

1. Nature of tissue irradiated:
i. Radioresponsive

ii. Radioresistive

2. Area irradiated: For the same dose, if smaller area is irradiated, the effect of
radiation is less.

3. Rate of dose: smaller the dose distributed, over a large period of time results in
a smaller or lesser effect of radiation

4. Fractionization: Division of dose, with sufficient gaps, helps in tissue recovery

resulting lesser effect of radiation
 Radiation Effects

 Factors that determine the biological effects of radiation:

5. Latent period: This is the period between the time of irradiation and the
appearance of the effect.
6. Age of patient: Younger the patient greater the chance of recovery.
7. Recovery power of the tissue: Undifferentiated cells have a greater
power of recovery
8. Type of cell: The effect of radiation is seen in the same generation, if a
somatic cell is affected, and in the case of the genetic cell the effect of radiation
will be seen in the next generation.
 Radiation Effects

 Factors that determine the biological effects of radiation:

9. Type of irradiation: There are different types of irradiations – low energy,
high energy or linear energy transfer.
10. Stage of development of tissue: The effect of radiation depends on the stage of
development of the tissue. E.g. primitive and undifferentiated and still
undergoing mitosis when irradiated the damage caused is greater.
11. Tissue threshold: Greater the tissue lesser damage seen. This depends on the
amount of radiation absorbed. Somatic changes do not occur until a minimum
of tissue threshold is exceeded. Genetic changes occur with any given dose.
 Radiation Effects

 Factors that determine the biological effects of radiation :

12. Species and individuals: Different species respond differently.
The median lethal dose varies in different species. Similarly in
individuals of the same species the response may be variable.
13. Oxygenations: Greater oxygenation of tissues, chances of recovery are
greater.
• The presence of oxygen in a cell acts as a radiosensitizer, making the effect of radiation more
damaging. Tumor cells typically have a lower oxygen content than normal tissue.
• This medical condition is known as tumor hypoxia and therefore the oxygen effect acts to
decrease the sensitivity of tumor tissue.
 Radiation Effects

 Organ sensitivity to the effect of radiation:

LOW MODERATE HIGH

Skin Brain Lungs

Bones Lymph glands Breasts

Spleen Thyroid Stomach

Kidneys Esophagus Colon

Bone marrow

Liver

Pancreas

Intestine

Ovaries
 Goal

 The ultimate goal is to ultimately describe the effect of radiation on

humans so that radiation can be used more safely in diagnosis and more
effectively in therapy.
 Synopsis

 After this lecture, you will able to:

• understand the fundamental concepts of radiation

• identify the types and sources of radiation

• recognize the application areas of ionizing radiations