Research PPT For Regular

.
University of Gondar
College of Business & Economics
School of Management & Public Administration
Department of Management
Course Title: Adv Business Research Methodology
Instructor: Demis A (PhD)
July: 2013. E.C.

Chapter One
• Research Methodology
Chapter One
• Concept and Meaning of Research

Research is..
• A systematic means of problem solving
(Tuckman 1978)
• Research is a process of steps used to collect
and analyze information to increase our
understanding of a topic or issue.
• Research is a systematic way of asking
questions, a systematic method of inquiry
(Drew, Hardman, and Hart, 1996).
• The systematic method consisting of
articulating the problem, formulating a
hypothesis, collecting the facts or data,
analysing the facts and reaching certain
conclusion either in the form of solutions
towards the concerned problem or in certain
generalisations for some theoretical
formulation.
• • systematic investigation into reality to gain
knowledge.
• Three elements of research
• (1) a question, problem, or hypothesis,
• (2) data, and
• (3) analysis and interpretation of data.
(Nunan, D. 1992, p. 232)
Objectives of research
• • Find out truth which is hidden and which has
not been discovered yet
• • Gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to
achieve new insights into it
• • Portray accurately the characteristics of a
particular individual, situation or a group
Objective …
• Determine the frequency with which
something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else • Test a
hypothesis of a casual relationship between
variables
The systematic methods
• Systematic; cyclic; series of logical steps.
• (1) formulating the research problem;
• (2) extensive literature survey;
• (3) developing the hypothesis;
• (4) preparing the research design;
• (5) determining sample design;
• (6) collecting the data;
• (7) execution of the project;
• (8) analysis of data;
• (9) hypothesis testing;
• (10) generalizations and interpretation, and
• (11) preparation of the report or presentation
of the results, i.e., formal write-up of
conclusions reached.
Importance of research
• 1. research adds to our knowledge
Adding to knowledge means that educators
undertake research to contribute to existing information
about issues
2. Research improves practices
To become better practitioners.
To Learn new ideas
3. Research inform policy debates or Research provides the
basis for nearly all government policies in our economic
system
4. Research has its special significance in solving
various operational and planning problems of
business and industry.
5. Research is equally important for social
scientists in studying social relationships and
in seeking answers to various social problems
Types of Business Research
• Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research

includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of
different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive
research is description of the state of affairs as it
exists at present.
• Example, Descriptive research often helps describe
market segments. For example, researchers used
descriptive surveys to describe consumers who are
heavy consumers (buy a lot) of organic food
products
• In social science and business research we
quite often use the term Ex post facto
research for descriptive research studies. The
main characteristic of this method is that the
researcher has no control over the variables;
he can only report what has happened or
what is happening.
• Most ex post facto research projects are used
for descriptive studies in which the researcher
seeks to measure such items as, for example,
frequency of shopping, preferences of people,
or similar data. Ex post facto studies also include
attempts by researchers to discover causes even
when they cannot control the variables. The
methods of research utilized in descriptive
research are survey methods of all kinds.
• In analytical research, on the other hand, the
researcher has to use facts or information
already available, and analyze these to make a
critical evaluation of the material.
• Analytical means logical, Investigative,
diagnostic, systematic, critical
Applied vs fundamental research
• Research can either be applied (or action) research
or fundamental (to basic or pure) research.
• Applied research aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organization, or research aimed
at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a
concrete social or business problem is an example of
applied research. whereas fundamental research is
mainly concerned with generalizations and with the
formulation of a theory.
• “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is
termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ or fundamental
research.”
• Research concerning some natural
phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics
are examples of fundamental research.
quantitative vs. Qualitative
• Quantitative research is based on the measurement
of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena
that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned
with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena
relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance,
when we are interested in investigating the reasons
for human behaviour (i.e., why people think or do
certain things), we quite often talk of ‘Motivation
Research’, an important type of qualitative research.
• This type of research aims at discovering the
underlying motives and desires, using in depth
interviews for the purpose.
• Qualitative research is specially important in
the behavioral sciences where the aim is to
discover the underlying motives of human
behavior.
Conceptual vs. Empirical:
• Conceptual research is that related to some abstract
idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and
thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret
existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies
on experience or observation alone, often without due
regard for system and theory.
• Relies on experience / observation alone
• It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions
which are capable of being verified by observation or
experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of
research.
Other Types…
• One-time research / longitudinal
• • Field-setting research/laboratory/simulation
• Clinical / laboratory
• • Historical
• • Conclusion oriented
• • Decision oriented
Other types of research
• Cross-sectional research/1 time - Research is
confined to a single time-period
• • Longitudinal research - Carried over several-
time periods
Research approaches
• • Quantitative approach
- Inferential
- - Experimental
- - Simulation
- • Qualitative approach
Research Approaches
• The above description of the types of research
brings to light the fact that there are two basic
approaches to research, viz., quantitative
approach and the qualitative approach. The
former involves the generation of data in
quantitative form which can be subjected to
rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and
rigid fashion.
• This approach can be further sub-classified into
inferential, experimental and simulation
approaches to research. The purpose of inferential
approach to research is to form a data base from
which to infer characteristics or relationships of
population. This usually means survey research
where a sample of population is studied
(questioned or observed) to determine its
characteristics, and it is then inferred that the
population has the same characteristics.
• Experimental approach is characterized by much greater
control over the research environment and in this case some
variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other
variables.
• Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial
environment within which relevant information and data can be
generated. This permits an observation of the dynamic
behaviour of a system (or its sub-system) under controlled
conditions. The term ‘simulation’ in the context of business and
social sciences applications refers to “the operation of a
numerical model that represents the structure of a dynamic
process.
• Qualitative approach to research is concerned with
subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and
behaviour.
• Research in such a situation is a function of
researcher’s insights and impressions. Such an
approach to research generates results either in
non-quantitative form or in the form which are not
subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis.
Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews,
and depth interviews are used
Motivation to do a research
• Intrinsic motivation - the love of the work
itself. Intrinsic motivations include: interest;
challenge; learning; meaning; purpose;
creative flow. Research has shown that high
levels of intrinsic motivation are strongly
linked to outstanding creative performance.
Motivating…
• Extrinsic motivation - rewards for good work
or punishments for poor work. Extrinsic
motivations include: money; awards; praise;
status; opportunities; deadlines;
commitments; bribes; threats. Research shows
that too much focus on extrinsic motivation
can block creativity
Motivation…
• Personal motivation - individual values, linked
to personality. Examples include: power;
harmony; achievement; generosity; public
recognition; authenticity; knowledge; security;
pleasure. Each of us prioritizes some values
over others; understanding your own values
and those of people around you is key to
motivating yourself and influencing others
MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
• The possible motives for doing research may be either

one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its
consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved
problems, i.e., concern over practical problems initiates
research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
Chapter Two
Define Research Problem and Hypothesis
formulation
• research problem is an issue, concern, or
controversy that the researcher investigates.
Authors may present it as a single sentence or
as a couple of short sentences.
RESEARCH PROBLEM
mu
st
Like a medical doctor, a researcher must examine
all the symptoms (presented to him or observed
by him) concerning a problem before he can
diagnose correctly. To define a problem correctly,
a researcher must know: what a problem is?
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4
What is a Research
Problem?
A research problem, in general,
refers to some difficulty which a
researcher experiences in the
context of either a theoretical or
practical situation and wants to
obtain a solution for the same.
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5
Problem Formulation
 If the answers to a research

question are obvious, we are
dealing with a management
problem that should be solved without
further research!
 Whether a problem situation requires
research depends on three conditions
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6
– There should be a perceived difference
or discrepancy between what exists
and the ideal or planned situation ;
– The reasons(s) for this difference should be
unclear ( so that it makes sense to develop a
research question ); and
– There should be more than one
possible answer to the question or solution
to the problem.
IMPORTANT SOURCES OF
PROBLEM
•Identification of a research problem is the first
& most important step in research process.
Generally, a broad area is selected & then a
broad topic is delimited or narrowed down to a
specific one- sentence statement of the
problem.
• This step of the research process is

considered as the difficult & challenging, &
need slots of time.
• A research problem may come from several 3

8
Person
al
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Brainstor ces Soci
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Issu
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Institutions Source Existi

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Resear es
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Folklor Previo
m
es us
Experie
nce
Practic Critical
al Apprais
Experien al of
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Dr.Abenet 3
Yohannes 9
Personal
Experiences:
• Day-to-day personal experience of a
research may serve as good source of
ideas to formulate a research problem.
• For example, a researcher observed

domestic violence suffered by wives of
alcoholic husbands.
• This experience may provide ideas to

identity several research problems related
to domestic violence against women.
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0
Practical Experiences:
PM gets plenty of ideas to formulate

research problems from their PM
experiences.
•Every curious PM has several

questions to be answered which are
encountered during PM experience.
Critical Appraisal of literature:
•When we critically study books & articles

relating to the subject of our interest,
including research report, articles, &
summaries of scientific issues, pertinent
questions may arise in our mind.
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2
Previous Experience:
•A body of knowledge should be developed
on a sound foundation of research
findings.
•Usually at the end of a research further

research problems are suggested, based
on the shortcomings of previous research,
which can be investigated.
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3
Existing theories:
•Research is a process of theory

development & theory testing. If an
existing theory is used in developing
a researchable problem, a specific
statement from theory must be
isolated.
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4
Social issues:
•Sometimes, topics are suggested by
more global contemporary social or
political issues of relevance to the
community.
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5
Brainstorming:
• Brainstorming sessions are good techniques

to find new questions, where an intensified
discussion among interested people of the
profession is conducted to find more ideas
to formulate a good research problem.
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6
Institution
•Traditionally institutions are considered good
sources of knowledge as well as sources to
find new research problems.
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7
Exposure to field situations:
•During field exposure, researchers get

variety of experiences, which may provide
plenty of ideas to formulate research
problems. For example, while working in
field a researcher observed a specific
traditional practice for cure of disease
condition, which can be used as research
problem to investigate its efficacy.
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8
Consultation with experts
• Experts are believed to have sound
experience of their respective field, which
may suggest a significance problem to be
studied.
•In addition, expert may help in finding a

current problem as basis of discipline to be
solve, which may serve for formulation of
research problem.
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9
Research problem
• It is a clear, precise and succinct/short &
snappy/ statement of the specific issue that a
researcher wishes to investigates.
• There are three criteria to assess the quality of
the problem statement.
• Relevant
• Feasibility
• Interesting
Research problem
• Relevant: we mean it is meaningful from a
managerial prospective, an academic
perspective, or both. From the managerial
prospective, research is relevant if it relates to
• 1. a problem that currently exists in an
organizational setting
• 2. an area that a manager believes needs to be
improved in the organization
Research problem
• From the academic perspective research is
relevant, if
• 1. nothing is known about the topic
• 2. much is known about the topic, but the
knowledge is scattered and not integrated
• 3. much result is on the topic is available, but
the results are (partly) contradictory.
Research problem
• A good research problem is also feasible if you
are able to answer the problem statement
within the restriction of the research project.
This restrictions are related to time and
money, but also the availability of the
respondents, the expertise of the researcher
(a problem statement may be difficult to
answer) and the like
Research problem..
• A problem statement may be too broad in
terms of scope and it is important to design
narrowly defined research questions with
respect to time and cost.
Research problem
• A third character of research problem is
interest. Research needs long journey and
process/ups and downs/. Therefore, to tackle
such difficulties, it is advisable to make
researches in the area of your interest
Techniques in defining research problem
• Defining a research problem properly and

clearly is a crucial part of a research study and
must in no case be accomplished quickly.
• The techniques to define the research
problem the following points should be
considered.
Techniques…
(i) statement of the problem in a general way
(ii)understanding the nature of the problem
(iii) surveying the available literature
(iv) developing the ideas through discussions
(v) rephrasing the research problem into a
working proposition
(i) statement of the problem in a general
way;
• First of all the problem should be stated in a broad
general way, keeping in view either some practical
concern or some scientific or intellectual interest.
For this purpose, the researcher must immerse
himself thoroughly in the subject matter. In case
of social research, it is considered advisable to do
some field observation and as such the researcher
may undertake some sort of preliminary survey or
what is often called pilot survey.
• Then the researcher can himself state the
problem or he can seek the guidance of the
guide or the subject expert in accomplishing
this task. Often, the guide puts forth the
problem in general terms, and it is then up to
the researcher to narrow it down and phrase
the problem in operational terms.
Cont…
• The problem stated in a broad general way
may contain various ambiguities which must
be resolved by cool thinking and rethinking
over the problem. At the same time the
feasibility of a particular solution has to be
considered and the same should be kept in
view while stating the problem.
(ii) Understanding the nature of the
problem:
• The next step in defining the problem is to
understand its origin and nature clearly. The best
way of understanding the problem is to discuss it
with those who first raised it in order to find out
how the problem originally came about and with
what objectives in view. If the researcher has
stated the problem himself, he should consider
once again all those points that induced him to
make a general statement concerning the problem.
• For a better understanding of the nature of
the problem involved, he can enter into
discussion with those who have a good
knowledge of the problem concerned or
similar other problems. The researcher should
also keep in view the environment within
which the problem is to be studied and
understood.
(iii) Surveying the available literature:
• All available literature concerning the problem
at hand must necessarily be surveyed and
examined before a definition of the research
problem is given. This means that the researcher
must be well-conversant with relevant theories
in the field, reports and records as also all other
relevant literature. He must devote sufficient
time in reviewing of research already
undertaken on related problems.
(iv) Developing the ideas through
discussions:
• Discussion concerning a problem often
produces useful information. Various new
ideas can be developed through such an
exercise. Hence, a researcher must discuss his
problem with his colleagues and others who
have enough experience in the same area or
in working on similar problems. This is quite
often known as an experience survey.
• People with rich experience are in a position
to enlighten the researcher on different
aspects of his proposed study and their advice
and comments are usually invaluable to the
researcher. They help him sharpen his focus of
attention on specific aspects within the field.
(v) Rephrasing the research problem:
• Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the
research problem into a working proposition.
Once the nature of the problem has been clearly
understood, the environment (within which the
problem has got to be studied) has been defined,
discussions over the problem have taken place
and the available literature has been surveyed and
examined, rephrasing the problem into analytical
or operational terms is not a difficult task.
• Through rephrasing, the researcher puts the
research problem in as specific terms as
possible so that it may become operationally
viable and may help in the development of
working hypotheses.
There are five ways to assess whether you
should research a problem
• 1. Study the problem if your study will fill a
gap or void in the existing literature. A study
fills a void by covering topics not addressed in
the published literature.
• 2. Study the problem if your study replicates
a past study but examines different
participants and different research sites.
Cont…
• The value of research increases when results
can apply broadly to many people and places
rather than to only the setting where the initial
research occurred. This type of study is
especially important in quantitative
experiments.
• In a quantitative study for example, past
research conducted in some areas can be
tested (or replicated) at other sites.
Cont..
• 3. Study the problem if your study extends past
research or examines the topic more
thoroughly. A good research problem to study
is one in which you extend the research into a
new topic or area, or simply conduct more
research at a deeper, more thorough level to
understand the topic.
• 4. Study the problem if your study gives voice to
people silenced, not heard, or rejected in society.
Your research adds to knowledge by presenting
the ideas and the words of marginalized (e.g., the
homeless, women, racial groups) individuals. For
example, although past studies on ethical climate
have addressed students on predominantly white
campuses, we have not heard the voices of Native
Americans on this topic
Cont…
• 5. Study the problem if your study informs
practice. By examining the problem, your
research may lead to the identification of new
techniques or technologies, the recognition of
the value of historical or current practice, or
the necessity of changing current teaching
practice
Research problem covers
• The statement of the problem section includes the actual
research problem as well as four other aspects:
1. The topic: The intent or purpose of the study (e.g., “The
intent of this study is to examine how clients construe the
therapist–client relationship.
2. A justification of the importance of the problem as found in
the past research and in practice: presenting reasons for the
importance of studying the issue or concern
4. The deficiencies in our existing knowledge about the
problem
5. The audiences that will benefit from a study of the problem
• The audience in a “statement of the problem”
section needs to be identified. It consists of
individuals and groups who will read and
potentially benefit from the information
provided in your research study. These audiences
will vary depending on the nature of your study,
but several often considered by educators
include researchers, practitioners, policy makers,
and individuals participating in the studies.
WHAT ARE RESEARCH QUESTIONS,
HYPOTHESES and OBJECTIVES
• Research questions are questions in quantitative
or qualitative research that narrow the purpose
statement to specific questions that researchers
seek to answer. Researchers typically develop them
before identifying the methods of the study (i.e.,
the types of data to be collected, analyzed, and
interpreted in a study). Unlike the single statement
found in a purpose statement, researchers typically
state multiple research questions so that they can
fully explore a topic
what is purpose statement?
• A purpose statement is a declarative sentence
which summarizes the specific topic and goals of
a document.
To be effective, a statement of purpose should be:
• Specific and precise - not general, broad or
obscure
• Concise - one or two sentences
• Clear - not vague, ambiguous or confusing
• Goal-oriented - stated in terms of desired outcomes
• Some common introductory phrases for purpose
statements include:
• "The purpose of this paper/letter/document is to..."
• "In this paper, I will describe/explain/review/etc.
the..."
• "My reason for writing is to..."
• "This paper will discuss the..."
• "The purpose of this paper is twofold: to ___ and __
Hypothesis
• It is a tentative, yet testable statement, which

predicts what you expect to find in your
empirical data.
• Hypothesis are derived from the theory on
which your conceptual model is based and are
often relational nature.
• It logically conjectured relationship between
two or more variables expressed in the form of
testable statements.
HYPOTH…
• Rather, researchers base them on results from
past research and literature where
investigators have found certain results and
can now offer predictions as to what other
investigators will find when they repeat the
study with new people or at new sites.
Statement of hypothesis
• If-then statement
if employees are more healthy, then they will
take sick leave less frequently.
Directional hypothesis
Non-directional hypothesis
Null and alternative hypothesis
Research Objectives
• A research objective is a statement of intent used in

quantitative research that specifies goals that the
investigator plans to achieve in a study. Researchers
often subdivide objectives into major and minor
objectives. They appear frequently in survey or
questionnaire studies or in evaluation research in which
investigators have clearly identified objectives. Like
hypotheses and research questions, objectives are found
at the end of the “statement of the problem” section,
after the literature review, or in a separate section of the
study.
HOW DO YOU DESIGN QUANTITATIVE PURPOSE
STATEMENTS, RESEARCH QUESTIONS, AND
HYPOTHESES?
• To write quantitative purpose statements, research
questions, and hypotheses, you need to understand
the importance and use of variables.
• Specify Variables
• A variable is a characteristic or attribute of an
individual or an organization that (a) researchers can
measure or observe and (b) varies among individuals
or organizations Studied. They are key ideas that
researchers seek to collect information on to address
the purpose of their study.
Dependent Variables
• A dependent variable is an attribute or characteristic

that is dependent on or influenced by the independent
variable.
• Independent Variables
• An independent variable is an attribute or characteristic
that influences or affects an outcome or dependent
variable. When the independent variable is present, the
dependent variable is also present, and with each unit of
increase in the independent variable, there is an increase
or decrease in the dependent variable.
Cont…
• In other words, the variance in the dependent
variable is accounted for by the independent
variable. To establish that a change in the
independent variable causes a change in the
dependent variable, all the following
conditions should be fulfilled.
Cont…
1. Both dependent and independent variables should
covary. In other words a change in the dependent
variable should be associated with a change in the
independent variable.
2. The independent variable should precede the
dependent variable. The cause must occur before
the effect.
3. No other factor should be a possible cause of the
change in the dependent variable. The researcher
should control the effect of other variables.
Cont…
• 4. a logical explanation (a theory) is needed
about why the independent variable affects
the dependent variable.
Control variables
• Control Variables: A control variable is
another type of independent variable that
researchers measure for the purposes of
eliminating it as a possibility, but it is not a
central variable of concern in explaining the
dependent variables or outcomes
Control variables
• A control variable is a variable that is important to consider
and “neutralize” (Tuckman, 1999, p. 100) because it
potentially influences the dependent variable. Typically,
control variables are personal demographic attributes or
characteristics (Tuckman, 1999) such as:
◆ Gender
◆ Socioeconomic status
◆ Intelligence
◆ Race
These variables are typically controlled through statistical
procedures
Moderating variables
• Moderating variables are new variables
constructed by the researcher by taking one
variable times another to determine the joint
impact of both variables together. This impact
is called an interaction effect.
• The presence of a third variable (moderating
variable) modifies the original relationship
between the independent and the dependent
variable.
• Moderator variable is a third party variable that modify the
relationship between an independent variable (IV) and a
dependent variable (DV). Objective of the moderator variable is
to measure the strength of the relationship between the IV &
DV.
• A moderator may increase the strength of a relationship,
decrease the strength of a relationship, or change the direction
of a relationship
• For example, if age is a moderator variable between salary (IV)
and health-screening expenses (DV), then relationship between
salary & health-screening can be stronger for older men and less
strong for younger men.
Another Example
Intervening variable
• An intervening variable is an attribute or
characteristic that “stands between” the
independent and dependent variables and
exercises an influence on the dependent
variable apart from the independent variable.
Intervening variables transmit (or mediate)
the effects of the independent variable on the
dependent variable. Thus, they are also called
mediating variables.
Intervening …
• The mediating variable surfaces as a function
of the independent variable(s) operating in
any situation, and helps to conceptualize and
explain the influence of the independent
variable(s) on the dependent variable.
Cont…
MV
IV DV
• Mediator variable is the middle variable /
"middleman" between an independent
variable (IV) and a dependent variable (DV).
Objective of the mediator variable is to explain
the relationship between IV & DV e.g. IV is not
directly influencing DV but rather IV is
indirectly influencing DV through mediator
variable. Pictorially, Independent variable -->
Mediator variable --> Dependent variable.
Distinction between IV, MV & MOD Var.
Chapter Three
what is research proposal?

What is a research proposal?
Various terminologies are used to mean a research proposal
depending on why the research is carried out?
 Research outline
 Synopsis of research
 Plan of research
 Research/project proposal
 Thesis plan
 Etc
…a blue print of future activities of a research project
…some sort of preconceived framework for starting the
activities
…a work plan, prospectus, outline, and statement of intent
ahead.
What is a research proposal?
…deals with ideas of researcher about

 what research he/she wants to do
 what objectives and methodology he/she has set
 how much time and resources are required to complete it
 how the research finding are to be reported
 and so on.
…is an individual’s or a research institute's formal
offer to produce a product or render service to a
client in response to a request from the client
In short, a proposal of a work frame for completing
the research
How to write research proposal?
 A research proposal is intended to convince others that you have a
worthwhile research project and that you have the competence and the
work-plan to complete it.
 Readers’ Evaluation: The proposal should have sufficient information to
convince your readers that you have an important research idea, that you
have a good grasp of the relevant literature and the major issues, and
that your methodology is sound.
 Regardless of your research area and the methodology you choose, all
research proposals must address the following questions:
 What you plan to accomplish
 Why you want to do it
 How you are going to do it
Components of research proposal
Title
Concise and descriptive
Functional relationship
Informative but catchy
Introduction
Necessary background or context
Placement of research question
a current "hot" area, or an older area that remains viable.
Appropriate historical backdrop
Contemporary context in which your proposed research question occupies the
central stage
Identification of "key players" and refer to the most relevant and representative
publications (if any).
Components…
research problem
• Like a medical doctor, a researcher must examine
all the symptoms (presented to him or observed
by him) concerning a problem before he can
diagnose correctly. To define a problem correctly, a
researcher must know: what a problem is?
• A research problem, in general, refers to some
difficulty which a researcher experiences in the
context of either a theoretical or practical situation
and wants to obtain a solution for the same.
The introduction generally covers the following elements:
 State the research problem, which is often referred to as the purpose
of the study
 Provide the context and set the stage for your research question in
such a way as to show its necessity and importance
 Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why
it is worth doing
 Briefly describe the major issues and sub-problems to be addressed
by your research.
 Identify the key independent and dependent variables of your
experiment. Alternatively, specify the phenomenon you want to study
 Set the delimitation or boundaries of your proposed research in order
to provide a clear focus.
 Provide definitions of key concepts(This is optional).
Literature Review (Important functions):
 Reinventing the wheel / Credits to deserved ones
 Demonstration of knowledge and understanding of the
theoretical and research issues
 Demonstration of ability to critically evaluate
 Indicates your ability to integrate and synthesize the existing
literature
 Development of a new model as the conceptual framework
 Convinces reader regarding significance and substantial
contribution to the literature
Components…
Purpose of literature review
• Identify variables relevant for research
• Avoidance of repetition: helps any duplication
of work done earlier.
• Synthesis of prior works: enables the researcher
to collect and synthesis prior studies related to
the present study. A synthesized of prior studies
also helps a researcher to identify the gap.
• Determining meaning and relationship
among variables: it enable the researcher in
discovering important variables relevant to
the area of the present research. When
significant variables are discovered, the
relationship among are identified.
Components…
Source of the literature review
• Journals and books
• Reviews: are short articles that gives brief
information regarding the work done in a
particular area over a period of time. reviews are
commonly published in journals, yearbooks,
handbooks and encyclopedias.
• Abstracts: provide a summery of the research
reports done in different fields.
Source…
• Indexes: it shows the titles of the research
report without any report. The titles are
categorized and arranged alphabetically in
each category.
• Internet:
• Doctorial dissertation
Methods
The Method section is very important because it tells your Research
Committee how you plan to tackle your research problem. It will provide
your work plan and describe the activities necessary for the completion of
your project
 The guiding principle for writing the Method section is that it should
contain sufficient information for the reader to determine whether
methodology is sound
 Furthermore, since there are no well-established and widely accepted
canons in qualitative analysis, your method section needs to be more
elaborative than what is required for traditional quantitative research
 More importantly, the data collection process in qualitative research has
a far greater impact on the results as compared to quantitative research.
For quantitative studies, the method section typically consists of the
following sections:
 Design
Is it a questionnaire study or a laboratory experiment? What kind of design do
you choose?
 Subjects or participants
Who will take part in your study ? What kind of sampling procedure do you use?
 Instruments
What kind of measuring instruments or questionnaires do you use? Why do you
choose them? Are they valid and reliable?
 Procedure
How do you plan to carry out your study? What activities are involved? How long
does it take?
Common Mistakes in Proposal Writing
 Failure to provide the proper context to frame the research
question
 Failure to delimit the boundary conditions for your research
 Failure to cite landmark studies
 Failure to accurately present the theoretical and empirical
contributions by other researchers
 Failure to stay focused on the research question
 Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the
proposed research
 Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major
issues
 Too much rambling -- going "all over the map" without a clear sense
of direction. (The best proposals move forward with ease and grace
like a seamless river.)
 Too many citation lapses and incorrect references
 Too long or too short.
Elements of research proposal
1.Title
2.Introduction
3.Statement of the problem
4.Rationale/justification/significance of the research
5.Scope and limitations of the study
6.Review of literature
7.Objectives of the research
8.Operational definitions of terms used
9.Hypothesis
10.Methodology Used
11.Time schedule/work plan
12.Budget/estimated cost built up *
13.Organization of the report/chapter outline
14.Bibliography/References
15.Appendix
Research proposal is not good
• A. If the problem is too broad and complex to
be handled in one inquiry
• B. If the problem is too subjective and is
based on personal opinion of the researcher
or of others which cannot be supported by
facts.
Research proposal is not good
• c. If the problem is too familiar
• d. If the problem is too technical and of

complex nature for which the researcher has
no theoretical background
Chapter Four
Sources and Methods of

data collection
Data Source
 Sources of data can be put into the two general categories of being
either primary or secondary
Primary Data
 A primary data source is something that originates from
first-hand knowledge of the person referenced in the data or
from a first-hand witness.
 Information obtained first hand by the researcher on the
variables of interest for the specific purpose of the study.
Primary data Sources from which researchers can gain data
by direct, detached observation or measurement of
phenomena in the real world, undisturbed by any
intermediary interpreter. It is a matter of philosophical
debate as to what extent the detachment and undisturbed
state are possible or even desirable.
Sources of primary Data
Primary data is the data collected by the researcher

themselves, e.g.
• interview
• Observation
• Panel discussion
• Delphi technique
• life histories
• Questionnaires
Methods of collecting Primary Data
 There are several ways of collecting
primary data. They are:
 Questionnaires
-Closed format question
-open format questions
• Questionnaires can be
• Open ended
• Closed ended questions
Types of measurement scales..
1. Nominal scales: Also called classificatory scale.
 Enables classification of individuals, objects, or responses
based on a common/shared property or characteristics.
 There is no sequential order for classification.
 A variable measured on nominal scale may have one, two,
or more subcategories depending upon the extent of
variation.
 Example: water and tree (have only one subgroup), gender
(has two subcategories as male and female), religion and
marital status (have more than two subcategories).
Business Research Methods 131
2. Ordinal scale: also called ranking scale.
• It has all the properties of a nominal scale plus
one of its own that is it ranks the subgroups in a
certain sequential order (they are arranged in
ascending or descending order)
• Example: Socioeconomic status(low, middle,
upper), income( above average, average, below
average), Attitude (strongly favorable, favorable,
uncertain, unfavorable, strongly unfavorable)
• 3. Interval scale: response options to questions
with assumed equal distances between options.
These scales may have three, four, or more
response options. The popular Likert scale
(“strongly agree” to “strongly disagree”) illustrates
a scale with theoretically equal intervals among
responses.

4. Ratio scale: It has all the properties nominal, ordinal
and interval scale plus it has a fixed starting point.
• a ratio scale (or true zero scale) is a response scale in
which participants check a response option with a true
zero and equal distances between units. Although
educational researchers seldom use this type of scale,
examples of it are the height of individuals (e.g., 50
inches, 60 inches) and income levels (from zero dollars
to $50,000 in increments of $10,000).
• Examples: Income, age, height, weight etc.
• Do you thing that in these days of escalating
costs of living , employees should be given
good pay rises? This kind of question
pressures respondents to say “yes”
 Personal Interviews
-Structured interview:-standardized questions read out by the
interviewer according to an interview schedule.
-Unstructured interview – a flexible format, usually based
on a question guide but where the format remains the
choice of the interviewer.
-Semi-structured interview – one that contains structured
and unstructured sections with standardized and open
type questions.
Methods of collecting Primary Data
Experiments and observational study

This is a method of gathering data through observation rather than
asking questions.
Observation is a basic data collecting activity for many branches of
research, particularly the natural and technical sciences.
Immersing Oneself in a Situation
This is a process of gathering primary data that not only
involves observation, but also experience in every sense of the
word. It is based on the techniques devised by anthropologists
to study social life and cultural practices of communities by
immersing themselves in the day-to-day life of their subjects.
Advantages of Primary Data
1. The researcher collects exactly the data elements
that you need to answer your research question.
2. The researcher can control the data collection
process, so he/she can ensure data quality, minimize
the number of missing values, and assess the
reliability of your instruments.
3. The researcher can select a sample that is
specifically designed to help answer your
research question, so irrelevant exclusion
criteria are not a concern.
Primary Data - Limitations
 Time and money consuming:
– primary data is most expensive to obtain. In certain
conditions, primary data sources are avoided and
secondary data sources are preferred because of
accessibility and cost constraints
Primary Data - Limitations
 Researcher error
– Sample bias: is an error related to
the way the survey respondents are
selected. It happens when a survey
sample is not completely random.
– Other confounding factors

Secondary Sources
Secondary data:- Data that have been
previously collected for some purpose other
than the one at hand.
Secondary data usually are historical and already
assembled. They require no access to
respondents or subjects.
 A secondary data source means that the information is
simply second-hand and Existing data collected for another
purpose that you employ to answer your research question.
Sources of secondary Data
 Secondary data can be classified as either internal to the
organization or external.
 Internal data should be defined as data that originated in the
organization, or data created, recorded, or generated by the
organization of the researcher.
 External data are generated or recorded by an entity other
than the researcher’s organization. The government,
newspapers and journals, trade associations, and other
organizations create or produce information. Traditionally,
this information has been in published form, perhaps
available from a public library, trade association, or
government agency.
 Today, however, computerized data archives(files, records)
and electronic data interchange make external data as
accessible as internal data.
Advantages of Secondary Data
• Less expensive to collect than primary data.
• It takes less time to collect secondary data.
• You may not need to worry about informed
consent/permittion/, human subjects restrictions,

etc.
Secondary Data – Limitations
 An inherent disadvantage of secondary
data is that they were not designed
specifically to meet the researchers’
needs. Thus, researchers must ask how
pertinent the data are to their particular
project.
Secondary Data – Limitations
 The most common reasons why secondary data
do not adequately satisfy research needs are
(1) outdated information,
(2) variation in definition of terms,
(3) different units of measurement, and
(4) lack of information to verify the data’s accuracy.
Which source is important??
 It depends on:-
1. Purpose and scope of enquiry
2. Availability of time
3. Availability of finance
4. Accuracy required
5. Statistical unit to be used
6. Source of the information
Chapter 5
Research Design
• A Research Design is the detailed blueprint
used to guide a research study toward its
objectives.
Research Design Can Be Classified
Research Design Can Be Classified
1. Exploratory Research
2. Conclusive Research
1. Exploratory research is conducted to provide a better
understanding of a situation. It isn’t designed
to come up with final answers or decisions.
• Exploratory Research is most commonly
unstructured, informal research that is undertaken to
gain background information about the general
nature of the research problem
07/28/2023 Chap-5 Reserach Design 163

– By unstructured we mean that exploratory research
does not have a formalized set of objectives, sample
plan, or questionnaire.
– Exploratory research is aimed at gaining additional
information about a topic and generating possible
hypothesis to test.
– It is conducted during the early stages of decision
making. At this point, the decision situation is
usually highly ambiguous and management is very
uncertain about what actions should, or even could,
be taken.

Methods of Conducting Exploratory Research
A variety of methods are available to conduct

exploratory research. These include:
Secondary Data Analysis
– Libraries and internet are full of secondary data,
which includes information found in books,
journals, magazines, special reports, bulletins,
news letters, and so on.
– An analysis of secondary data is often the “core”
of exploratory research.

Experience surveys
• Experience survey refers to gathering
information from those thought to be
knowledgeable on the issues relevant to the
research problem.
• If the research problem deals with forecasting
the demand for sulphuric acid over the next 2
years, researchers may begin by making a few
calls to some “experts” on this issue.

Focus groups
• In a focus group, a small number of individuals
(e.g., 8–12) are brought together to talk about
some topic of interest to the focus group sponsor.
• Focus groups are groups of people brought and
guided by a moderator through an unstructured,
spontaneous discussion for the purpose of gaining
information relevant to the research problem.
• The moderator should ensure the discussion is
“focused “on some general area of interest.

• Case analysis: Intensive /rigorous/ study of selected
examples of the phenomenon interest.
• Depth interviews: are used to tap the knowledge
and experience of those with information relevant to
the problem or opportunity at hand. Anyone with
relevant information is a potential candidate for a
depth interview, including current customers,
members of the target market, executives and
managers of the client organization, sales
representatives, wholesalers, retailers, and so on.
• 2. Conclusive Research. Research designed to
assist the decision maker in determining,
evaluating, and selecting the best course of
action to take in a given situation.

• is typically more formal and structured than
exploratory research. It is based on large,
representative samples, and the data obtained
are subjected to quantitative analysis.

• The findings from the research are considered
to be conclusive in nature in that they are
used as input into managerial decision-
making.
• Conclusive research can be either descriptive
or causal and descriptive research can be
either cross-sectional or longitudinal.

Descriptive Research
• A Descriptive Research is a type of conclusive
research that has as its major objective the
description of something-usually market
characteristics or functions.
• Provides answers to questions such as who,
what, where, when and how, as they are
related to the research problem.
• Typically, answers to these questions, are found
in secondary data or by conducting surveys.

Descriptive research is conducted for the following
reasons:
• To describe the characteristics’ of relevant groups, such
as consumers, salespeople, organisations, or market
areas. For example we can develop a profile of the
“heavy users” (frequent shoppers) of prestigious
department stores. or
• To estimate the percentage of units in a specified
population exhibiting a certain behaviour. For example,
we might be interested in estimating the percentage of
heavy users of prestigious department stores who also
patronize discount department stores.
• Descriptive Research can be further classified
into
1. cross-sectional and
2. longitudinal research.

Cross-Sectional Designs
• A type of research design involving the collection of
information from any given sample of population
elements only once.
Single cross-sectional design
• A type of research design involving the collection of
information from any given sample of population
elements only once.
• In this type of design only one sample of respondents
is drawn from the target population, and information
is obtained from this sample only once.

Multiple-cross-sectional design:
• A cross sectional design in which there are
two or more samples of respondents, and
information from each samples is obtained
only once.
• Often, information from different samples is
obtained at different times over long intervals.
• It allows comparisons at the aggregate level
but not at the individual respondent’s level.

• Because a different sample is taken each time a
survey is conducted, there is no way to compare
the measures on individual respondents across
surveys. For example cohort analysis.
– A cohort analysis: is a multiple cross-sectional
design consisting of a series of surveys conducted at
appropriate time intervals. The cohort refers to the
group of respondents who experience the same
event within the same time interval. Example birth
or age cohort is a group of people who were born
during the same time interval such as 1961 through
1970.

II) Longitudinal Designs
• A type of research design involving a fixed
sample of population elements that is
measured repeatedly on the same variables.
• A survey of respondents at different times,
thus allowing analysis of response continuity
and changes over time.

A Panel
• A sample of respondents who have agreed to
provide information at specified intervals over an
extended period. (Some times a panel is used
interchangeably with longitudinal design).
• A longitudinal study that gathers data from the
same sample of individuals or households over
time.
• There are two types of panels:
– Traditional Panels
– Omnibus Panels
Traditional Panels
• Ask panel members the same questions on
each panel measurement.
• They are also demographically matched to
some larger entity, implying representativeness
as well.
• Usually, firms are interested in using data from
traditional panels because they can gain
insights into changes in consumer’s purchases,
attitudes, and so on.

Omnibus Panels
– Vary questions from one panel measurement to the
next.
– May be used for a variety of purposes, and the
information collected by an omnibus panel varies from
one panel measurement to the next.
– Essentially, the omnibus panel’s primary usefulness is
that it represents a large group –people, stores, or
some other entity-that is agreeable to providing
marketing research information.
– Omnibus panels are also demographically matched to
some larger entity, implying representativeness as
well.
Other research designs
Experimental research design
• Random assignment of subjects to
experimental and control groups,
• Pre-testing of both groups,
• Independent variable manipulated; all other
variables held constant,
• Post-testing of both groups,
• Computation and analysis of group differences
Co-relational design
• Correlational techniques are generally
intended to answer three questions about two
variables or two sets of data. First, ‘Is there a
relationship between the two variables (or
sets of data)?’ If the answer to this question is
‘yes’, then two other questions follow:
• ‘What is the direction of the relationship?’ and
‘What is the magnitude?’
Co-relational design
• A correlation is a statistical test to determine
the tendency or pattern for two (or more)
variables or two sets of data to vary
consistently. In the case of only two variables,
this means that two variables share common
variance, or they co-vary together.
• Co-vary means that we can predict a score on
one variable with knowledge about the
individual’s score on another variable.
• In correlational research designs, investigators use
the correlation statistical test to describe and
measure the degree of association (or relationship)
between two or more variables or sets of scores. In
this design, the researchers do not attempt to
control or manipulate the variables as in an
experiment; instead, they relate, using the
correlation statistic, two or more scores for each
person (e.g., a student motivation and a student
achievement score for each individual).
• The statistic that expresses a correlation
statistic as a linear relationship is the product–
moment correlation coefficient. It is also
called the bivariate correlation, zero-order
corre lation, or simply r, and it is indicated by
an “r” for its notation.
• You use this design when you seek to relate
two or more variables to see if they influence
each other.
Types of co-relational design
• 1. Explanatory design
• 2. the prediction design
• 1. The explanatory design: is a correlational
design in which the researcher is interested in
the extent to which two variables (or more)
co-vary, that is, where changes in one variable
are reflected in changes in the other.
Explanatory designs consist of a simple
association between two variables or more
than two .
Character of explanatory research design
• ◆ The investigators correlate two or more

variables. They report the correlation statistical test
and mention the use of multiple variables. Readers
find these variables specifically mentioned in the
purpose statement, the research questions, or the
tables reporting the statistical procedures.
• ◆ The researchers collect data at one point in time.
In explanatory correlational research, the
investigators are not interested in either past or
future performance of participants.
• ◆ The researcher obtains at least two scores
for each individual in the group—one for
each variable:
• Eg leadership & committment
• ◆ The researcher reports the use of the
correlation statistical test (or an extension of
it) in the data analysis: In addition, the
researcher includes reports about the strength
and the direction of the correlational test to
provide additional information.
• ◆ Finally, the researcher makes
interpretations or draws conclusions from the
statistical test results.
• 2. The Prediction Design: Instead of simply relating
variables—two variables at a time or a complex set such as
in our last example—in a prediction design, researchers
seek to anticipate outcomes by using certain variables as
predictors.
• The purpose of a prediction research design is to identify
variables that will predict an outcome or criterion. In this
form of research, the investigator identifies one or more
predictor variable and a criterion (or outcome) variable. A
predictor variable is a variable used to make a forecast
about an outcome in correlational research.
• A Correlation Matrix: Correlation researchers
typically display correlation coeffi cients in a
matrix. A correlation matrix presents a visual
display of the correlation coeffi cients for all
variables in a study.
Transformational
Transactional
Lassies- faire
employee
commitment
Transformationa
Pearson correlation 1
Sig. (2-tailed)
N 371
l
Pearson correlation 0.090 1

Transactional
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.085
N 371 372
Pearson correlation -0.103* -0.029 1

Lassies- faire
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.048 0.571
N 371 372 372
Pearson Correlation 0.836** 0.360** -0.124* 1

ployee
itment
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 0.017

• What Is the Degree and Strength of
Association?
• Degree of association means that the
association between two variables or sets of
scores is a correlation coefficient of –1.00 to
+1.00, with 0.00 indicating no linear
association at all. This association between
two sets of scores reflects whether there is a
consistent, predictable association between
the scores
• researchers calculate the coefficient of
determination, which assesses the
proportion of variability in one variable that
can be determined or explained by a second
variable. For example, if you obtain r = +.70 (or
–.70), squaring this value leads to r2 = .49 (or
49%). This means that almost half (49%) of the
variability in Y can be determined or explained
by X.
Chapter 6
sampling Design
• Sampling is the process of using a small or
parts of a larger population to make conclusions
about the whole population.
– Sampling is one of the components of research
design.
Why we take sampling?
It is not costly
Because it is difficult to get all study elements
From the sample we can generalize
b/sc some respondents are not voluntary to participate
Sampling frame
• A list of elements from which a sample may be
drawn; also called working population. For example,
would a university e-mail directory provide an
accurate sampling frame for a given university’s
student population? Perhaps the sampling frame
excludes students who registered late and includes
students who have resigned from the university.
The e-mail directory also will likely list only the
student’s official university e-mail address.
• A SAMPLE DESIGN
• A sample design is a definite plan for
obtaining a sample from a given population. It
refers to the technique or the procedure the
researcher would adopt in selecting items for
the sample.
• Sample design is determined before data are
collected. There are many sample designs
from which a researcher can choose. Some
designs are relatively more precise and easier
to apply than others. Researcher must
select/prepare a sample design which should
be reliable and appropriate for his research
study
• DIFFERENT TYPES OF SAMPLE DESIGNS
• sample designs are basically of two types viz.,
non-probability sampling and probability
sampling. We take up these two designs
separately
Types…
• 1. Non-probability sampling is a sampling
technique in which some units of the
population have zero chance of selection or
where the probability of selection cannot be
accurately determined. Typically, units are
selected based on certain non-random
criteria, such as quota or convenience.
• Because selection is non-random,
nonprobability sampling does not allow the
estimation of sampling errors, and may be
subjected to a sampling bias.
• Therefore, information from a sample cannot
be generalized back to the population.
• Types of non-probability sampling techniques
include:.
Example of non probability sampling
• A convenience sample is a type of non-probability sampling
method where the sample is taken from a group of people easy
to contact or to reach.
• this is a technique in which a sample is drawn from that part of
the population that is close to hand, readily available, or
convenient. For instance, if you stand outside a shopping center
and hand out questionnaire surveys to people or interview them
as they walk in, the sample of respondents you will obtain will
be a convenience sample. This is a non-probability sample
because you are systematically excluding all people who shop at
other shopping centers.
• Researchers generally use convenience samples to obtain a large
number of completed questionnaires quickly and economically,
or when obtaining a sample through other means is impractical.
• For example, many Internet surveys are conducted with
volunteer respondents who, either intentionally or by chance,
visit an organization’s Web site. Although this method produces
a large number of responses quickly and at a low cost, selecting
all visitors to a Web site is clearly convenience sampling.
• Convenience samples are best used for exploratory research
when additional research will subsequently be conducted with a
probability sample.
• Judgment (purposive) sampling is a non-
probability sampling technique in which an
experienced individual selects the sample
based on his or her judgment about some
appropriate characteristics required of the
sample member. Researchers select samples
that satisfy their specific purposes, even if
they are not fully representative.
• Quota sampling is defined as a non-probability sampling in
which certain fraction or proportions is taken from a segment of
a population. As such, this technique guarantees the inclusion
of all important segments of the population in a study.
• Researchers choose these individuals according to specific traits
or qualities.
• Under quota sampling the interviewers are simply given quotas
to be filled from the different strata, with some restrictions on
how they are to be filled.
• For example, an interviewer in a particular city may be assigned
100 interviews, 35 with owners of Sony TVs, 30 with owners of
Samsung TVs, 18 with owners of Panasonic TVs, and the rest
with owners of other brands
• snowball sampling (or chain sampling, chain-
referral sampling, referral sampling) involve
using probability methods for an initial
selection of respondents and then obtaining
additional respondents through information
provided by the initial respondents. This
technique is used to locate members of rare
populations by referrals.
• 2. Probability sampling: Probability sampling is also
known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance sampling’.
Under this sampling design, every item of the
universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the
sample. It is, so to say, a lottery method in which
individual units are picked up from the whole group
not deliberately but by some mechanical process.
Here it is blind chance alone that determines
whether one item or the other is selected.
Types of probability sampling
• I. simple random sampling: A sampling
procedure that assures each element in the
population of an equal chance of being
included in the sample. Examples include
drawing names from a hat and selecting the
winning raffle ticket from a large drum. If the
names or raffle tickets are thoroughly stirred,
each person or ticket should have an equal
chance of being selected
• Suppose a researcher is interested in selecting
a simple random sample of all the Honda
dealers in California, New Mexico, Arizona,
and Nevada. Each dealer’s name is assigned a
number from 1 to 105. The numbers can be
written on paper slips, and all the slips can be
placed in a bowl. After the slips of paper have
been thoroughly mixed, one is selected for
each sampling unit.
• (iI) Systematic sampling: In some instances,
the most practical way of sampling is to select
every ith item on a list. Sampling of this type is
known as systematic sampling.
• sampling procedure in which a starting point is
selected by a random process and then every
nth number on the list is selected.
To use systematic sampling the researcher decides on a “skip
interval”, which is calculated by dividing the number of names
on the list by sample size.
Skip interval ( I) = Population list size

Sample size
• For example, there are 100,000 elements in the population

and a sample of 1000 is desired.
• In this case, the sampling interval, I, is 100. Random number
between 1 and 100 is selected.
• If, for example, this number is 23, the sample consists of
elements 23,123, 223, 323, 423, and so on.
07/28/2023 Chap-6 Sampling Design 212
iii. Stratified Sampling
• Stratified sampling: If a population from which a sample is
to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous group,
stratified sampling technique is generally applied in order to
obtain a representative sample. Under stratified sampling
the population is divided into several sub-populations that
are individually more homogeneous than the total
population (the different sub-populations are called ‘strata’)
and then we select items from each stratum to constitute a
sample.
• We can take through systematic or simple random sampling
or proportionate sampling to draw the final respondents.
• SS is a probability sampling technique that uses a two-
step process to partition the population into sub
populations, or strata. Elements are selected from
each stratum by random procedures.
• In practice , sometimes systematic sampling and
other probability sampling procedures are employed
07/28/2023 Chap-6 Sampling Design 214

Iv Cluster/area sampling
• Cluster/Area sampling: If clusters happen to
be some geographic subdivisions, in that case
cluster sampling is better known as area
sampling. In other words, cluster designs,
where the primary sampling unit represents a
cluster of units based on geographic area, are
distinguished as area sampling. The plus and
minus points of cluster sampling are also
applicable to area sampling.
• (iv) Multi-stage sampling: Multi-stage
sampling is a further development of the
principle of cluster sampling. Suppose we
want to investigate the working efficiency of
nationalized banks in Ethiopia we want to
take a sample of few banks for this purpose.
The first stage is to select large primary
Multi stage sampling
• sampling unit such as states in a country. Then
we may select certain districts and interview
all banks in the chosen districts. This would
represent a two-stage sampling design with
the ultimate sampling units being clusters of
districts.
Chapter Seven
Data Analysis
6.1 Basic Objectives of Data Analysis
There are three objectives in data analysis:

i)Getting a Feel for the Data: The feel for the data
will give preliminary ideas of how good the scale are , how
well the coding and entering of data have been done , and
so on.
• Suppose an item tapped on a 7-point scale has been
improperly coded and /or entered as 8; this will be highlighted
by the maximum values on the descriptive statistics and the
error can be rectified.
07/28/2023 Chap- 12 Data Analysis & Interpretation 218
ii)Testing the Goodness of the Data:
Testing the goodness of data can be accomplished
by submitting the data for factor analysis, obtaining
the Cronbach’s alpha or the split-half reliability of
the measures, and so on.
– Establishing the goodness of data lends
credibility to all subsequent analysis and findings.
– Hence, getting a feel for the data becomes the
necessary first step in all data analysis.
– Based on this initial feel further detailed
analysis may be done to test the goodness of the
data.

Reliability and Validity
• Reliability: the reliability of a measure is

established by testing for both consistency and
stability.
• Cronbach’s alpha is a reliability
coefficient that indicates how well the items in
a set are positively correlated to one another.
• Cronbach’s alpha is computed in terms
of the average intercorrelations among the
items measuring the concept.
• Validity: factorial validity can be established by
submitting the data for factor analysis.
• Criterion – Related Validity: can be established by
testing for the power of the measure to differentiate individuals
who are known to be different.
relates to our ability to
• Criterion-related validity :
predict some outcome or estimate the existence of
some current condition. This form of validity reflects
the success of measures used for some empirical
estimating purpose. For eg, a job applicant takes a
performance test during the interview process . If this
test accurately predicts how well the employee will
perform on the job,
07/28/2023
then it is criterion related validity.221
Chap- 12 Data Analysis & Interpretation
• Convergent-Validity: can be established when there is
high degree of correlation between two different sources
responding to the same measure. For example: both
supervisors and subordinates respond similarly to a
perceived reward system measure administered to them.
• Convergent validity is the degree to which multiple attempts to measure the
same concept are in agreement”
• Discriminant Validity: can be established when two
distinctly different concepts are not correlated to each other
as for example, courage and honesty; leadership and
motivation; attitudes and behaviors.
• Discriminate validity measures the level to which the
measured variables are differing
• IV) Content validity is the extent to which a
measuring instrument provides adequate
coverage of the topic under study
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive Statistics: Measures of Central

Tendencies
Descriptive Statistics such as frequencies, the

mean, and the standard deviation, which provide
descriptive information of a set of data.
• Descriptive statistics involve transformation of raw data into a
form that would provide information to describe a set of factors in
a situation.
• This is done through ordering and manipulation of the raw data
collected.
• Descriptive statistics are provided by frequencies, measures of
central tendency, and dispersion.
• Frequencies: simply refers to the number of
times various subcategories of a certain
phenomenon occurs, from which the percentage and
the cumulative percentage of their occurrence can
be easily calculated.
Example:
– An MNC president wants to know how many
African Americans, Hispanics, Asians, whites, and
“others” are on its payroll.

– A marketing manager wants to know how many
units of each brand of coffee are sold in a particular
region during a given period.
– A tax consultant desires to keep count of the number

of times different sizes of firms-small, medium and
large are audited.
– In all the foregoing cases, it may be noted that we

desire to obtain the frequencies on a nominally scaled
variable.
Measures of Central Tendency
• The Mean: the mean or average is a measure of

central tendency that offers a general picture of the
data without unnecessarily inundating one with each
of the observations in the data set.
• Example: the production department might keep

detailed records on how many units of a product are
being produced each day.

• However, to estimate the raw
materials inventory, all that the manager
might want to know is how many units per
month, on an average, the department has
been producing over the past 6 months.
• The Median: is a set of observation would not
lend itself to a meaningful representation through
either the mean or the median, but can be signified
by the most frequently occurring phenomenon.

Example: in a department where there
are :
• 10 white women,
• 24 white men,
• 3 African American women, and
• 2 Asian women, the most frequently
occurring group is the mode…….the
Whiteman.
Measures of Dispersion
Dispersion is the variability that exists

between/among / a set of observation.
– Two sets of data might have the same mean, but the
dispersions could be different.
– For example, if company A sold 30, 40, and 50
units of a product during the months of April, May, and
June respectively, and the company B sold 10, 40, and 70
units during the same period, the average units sold per
month by both companies is the same-40 units –but the
variability or the dispersion in the later company is larger.

• The three measurements of dispersion connected with
the mean are :
– the range,
– the variance, and
– the standard deviation, which are explained below.
• Range: refers to the extreme values in a set of
observations.
– The range is between 30 and 50 for company A (a
dispersion of 20 units), while the range is between 10
and 70 units (a dispersion of 60 units) for company B.

• Variance: the variance is calculated by subtracting
the mean from each of the observations in the data
set, taking the square of this difference, and dividing
the total of these by the number of observations.
– In the above example, the variance for each of
the two companies is:
• Variance for Company A= (30-40)2 + (40-40)2 + (50-40)2 = 66.67
3
• Variance for Company B= (10-40)2 + (40-40)2 + (70-40)2 = 600

– As we can see, the variance is much
larger in company B than company A.
– It makes it more difficult for the
manager of company B to estimate
how much goods to stock than it is for
the manager of company A.
– Thus, variance gives an indication of
how dispersed the data in a data set
are.
– Standard Deviation: another measure of
dispersion for interval and ratio scaled data,
offers an index of the spread of a distribution or
the variability in the data .
– It is very commonly used to measure of dispersion,
and is simply the square root of the variance.
– In the case of the above two companies, the
standard deviation for companies A & B would be
66.67 and 600 or 8.67 and 24.495, respectively.

– The mean and the standard deviation are the
most common descriptive statistics.
– The standard deviation, in conjunction with the
mean, is very useful tool because of the following
statistical rules, in a normal distribution.
Practically
• All observation falls within three standard deviation
of the average or the mean.
• More than 90% of the observation is within two
standard deviations of the mean.
• More than half of the observation is within one
standard deviation of the mean.

Other Measures of Dispersion
– When the median is the measure of central

tendency, percentiles, deciles, and quartiles
become meaningful.
– Just as the median divides the total realm of
observations into two equal halves, the quartile
divides it into four equal parts, the decile into 10,
and the percentile to 100 equal parts.
– The percentile is useful when huge masses of data,
such as the GRE or GMAT scores, are handled.
– When the area of observations is divided into 100
equal parts, there are 99 percentile points.
– Any given score has a probability of .01 that it
will fall in any of those points.
– If John‘s score is in the 16th percentile, it
indicates that 84% of those who took the
exam scored better than he did, while 15% did
worse.
– Often times, we are interested in knowing
where we stand in comparison to others-are
we in the middle, in the upper 10 or 25% or in
the lower 20 or 25%, or where?

– For instance, telephone companies can
compare long-distance charges of
customers in several areas by taking samples of
customer bills from each of the cities to be compared
– By plotting the first and third quartiles and
comparing the median and the spread, they can get a
good idea of where billings tend to be highest, to
what extent customers vary in the frequency of use
of long –distance calls, and so on.
– This is done by the box-and –whisker plot for each
area.

Inferential Statistics
– Inferential Statistics is statistics that
help to establish relationships among
variables and draw conclusion there from.
We might be interested to know or infer
from the data through analysis.
– The relationship between two variables for
example between advertisements and
sales.

– Differences in a variable among different
subgroups –whether women or men buy more
of a product.
– How several independent variables might
explain the variance in a dependent variable –
how investments in the stock market are
influenced by the level of unemployment,
perceptions of the economy, disposable
income and dividend expectations .

Pearson Correlation
• Many times, however, we would be interested in

inferential statistics.
• That is, we might be interested to know or infer
from the data through analysis :
– the relationship between two variables
(e.g., between advertisement and sales),
– differences in a variable among
different subgroups (e.g., whether
women or men buy more of a product),
– Theoretically, there could be range between-
1.0 and 1.0, we need to know if any
correlation found range between two variables is
significant or not (i.e. if it has occurred solely by
chance or if there is a high probability of its actual
existence).
– As we know, a significance of p=.05 is the
generally accepted conventional level in social
science research.
– This indicates that 95 times out of 100, we can be
sure that there is a true or significant correlation
between the two variables, and there is only a 5%
chance that the relationship does not truly exist.
– If there is a correlation of .56 (denoted as
r=.56) between two variables A and B, with
p<.01 then, we know that there is a positive
relationship between the two variables and
the probability of this not being true is 1% or
less.
– That is, over 99% of the time we would expect
this correlation to exist.
– The correlation of .56 also indicates that the
variables would explain the variance in one
another (to the extent of 31.4% (.56)2.
– We would not know which variable causes
which, but we would know that the two
variables are associated with each other.
– Thus, hypothesis that postulates a significant
positive (or negative) relationship between
two variables can be tested by examining
the correlation between the two.

– A bivariate correlation analysis, which indicates
the strength of relationship between the two
variables, can be generated for variables
measured on an interval or ration scale. Interval
scales have both nominal and ordinal properties.
• Spearman’s rank correlation and Kendall’s rank
correlation are used to examine relationships
between two ordinals/ranked/ Variables. It allows
things to be arranged in order based on how
much of some concept they possess.

Relationship between Two Nominal Variables: X2 Test
– We might sometimes want to know if there is a relationship

between two nominal variables of whether they are
independent of each other.
As examples:
– Is viewing television advertisement of a product (yes/no)
related to buying that product by individuals (buy/don’t
buy)?
– Is the type of job done by individuals (white-color jobs vs.
blue-collar jobs) a function of the color of their skin
(white vs. non white)?

Guidelines to Process Data’s Using SPSSS
Checking the Reliability of Measures: Cronbache’s Alpha
– The closer the reliability coefficient gets to 1.0, the better.

– In general, reliabilities less than .60 are
considered to be poor, those in the .70,
range, acceptable, and those over .80 good.
– It is important to note that all negatively worded items in
the questionnaires should first be reversed before the
items are submitted for reliability test.
– Unless all the items measuring a variable
are in the same direction, the reliabilities
obtained will be incorrect.

Reliability Analysis
• From the menu, choose
– Analyse
– Scale
– Reliability analysis
– Select the variables constituting the
scale
– Choose model alpha.
Obtaining Descriptive Statistics: Frequency Distributions
• Frequency distribution was obtained for all the personal

data or classification variables.
Frequencies
• From the menus, choose
– Analyze
– Descriptive statistics
– Frequencies …..
– (Select the relevant variable)
– Choose needed:
– Statistics
– Charts….
• Format (for the order in which the results are to be
displayed)
• The frequencies can also be visually displayed as bar charts,
histograms, or pie charts by clicking on statistics in the
menu then summarize, then Frequencies, and charts in the
frequencies dialog box and then selecting the needed chart.
Pearson Correlation Matrix
• From the menus, choose:
– Analyze
– Correlate
– Bivariate ……
– Option………
– Select:
• Type of correlation coefficient: select relevant one. For
example Pearson, Kendall’s, Tau, Spearman.
• Test of sigiinificance –two tailed, one –tailed.
T-Test for Difference between Two Groups
(Independent Sample Test)
Choose
– Analyse
– Compare means
– Independent- samples t- test
– Select a single grouping variable and click Define
groups to specify the two codes to be compared.
– Options…………
– (Specify confidence level required
- .05, .01, etc.)

Analysis Over Variance (ANOVA)
Choose
– Analyze
– Compare means
– One-way ANOVA
– (Select the dependent variable‘s and one
independent factor variable)
• For post hoc test to determine in which of the multiple
groups the differences lie click on:
• Post hoc ………
• (Select from among the many tests such as
Bobferoni, scheffe, Tukey, Duncan, as appropriate)
Chi-Square Test
Choose:
– Analyze
– Descriptive Statistics
– Crosstabs………..
– (Enter variables in the rows and
Columns boxes)
– Statistics ……………..
– Select Chi-Square

Multiple Regression Analysis
• Choose
– Analyze
– Regression
– Linear …………
– (Enter dependent and
independent variables)
• …………….The End
……………………………
Chapter 8
Reporting Research Findings
• Upon completion of this unit you will be able.
– to prepare a scientific presentation
– to identify your audience
– to organize your presentation to be informative
– stylistic issues to make your presentation
interesting
– avoiding common errors
Writing Scientific Research
• A research report should be;
– informative,
– clear, and
– understandable.
• Guidelines to Prepare a Research Report
1. Purpose
– a variety of formats, editorial requirements, etc. are
applicable depending on the particular area of scientific
endeavor and/or the specific publication (E.g. journal,
technical manual, etc).
– The purpose of writing a scientific report is to communicate
an idea or set of ideas to people who want to understand
the level of scientific progress in a specific area of
specialization, and many a times to even carry the idea(s)
further.
The Target Audience
“Who is the relevant target audience?”.
• The target audience shall be assumed to be intelligent and have

some basic scientific background.
• Research report should be written for all interested current and
future researchers.
• The target audience can also be:
– policy makers,
– general public, etc.,
• To serve the reader, your paper should have pertinent information.
• tailor your report to the perceived level of scientific understanding.
3. The Organization
List of the parts of a typical scientific report:
• - Title
• - Acknowledgement
• - Abstract
• - Introduction
• - Materials and methods
• - Results
• - Discussion/Conclusion
• - References
• - Appendices, where applicable
Title Page
Title
• The title is a short statement that encapsulate /summarize/ the main thrust of the paper.
• The title should accurately reflect the content of the paper.
• A specific and concise title is crucial to persuade the reader to continue reading the paper.
• As a general guideline, avoid overtly general terms, idiosyncratic abbreviations.
Author
• The list of authors is the next important item on the title page.
• The list of authors should include only those who made significant contribution to the work.
• Conventionally, the first author is the person who made the major contribution to the work and
is responsible for most of the data presented in the paper.
• The last author is the principal investigator who initiated the idea and supported the study.
• The authors whose names are listed in between the first and the last are the people who
contributed intellectually to the research significantly in the order of the list.
Acknowledgement
• This is a professional courtesy that not only is a show of
gratitude, but also truthfully indicates to the reader who
has played a part in project
• Acknowledge:
– persons who have professionally contributed to the work be it in
kind or in ideas.
– the institutions that have provided funding, research space,
manpower, etc towards your research project.
– individuals who have provided personal support and assistance
that is separate from professional help.
Abstract
• The abstract is a summary of the information in the
paper.
• It is best to write the abstract after you have written the
entire paper.
• The size of an abstract shall be between 250 words and
500 words.
• an abstract should include
1. the principal objective and scope of the investigation;
2. describe the methodology employed;
3. summarize the results; and
4. state the principal conclusion.
Introduction
• The purpose of the introduction should be to provide sufficient
background information to allow the readers to understand and
evaluate the results of the present study
• The introduction should present the nature and scope of the problem
you studied.
• In this section:
– definitions of problem should be given with some explanations.
– the necessary information related to the problem to be solved should
be provided here.
– at the end of the introduction, you will insert an itemized list of the
general and specific objectives/aims of the research project.
Materials and Methods
• The materials and methods section answers the
question: “how did you study the problem?”.
• List:
– the laboratory equipment used,
– the questionnaire you used.
– the experimental design used, and
– How the data was analyzed (the statistical tools employed)
• This will allow the reader to assess whether you have
properly planned and executed the research project.
Results
• This is the core section of the scientific report and will be heavy on
tables, figures, charts, etc.
• The results component is the body of your entire work.
• The results component answers the question: “What did you obtain
from the experiments you conducted?”.
• The presentation of the results must be clear and arranged in a logical
order.
• If your research was quantitative, present your results in tables and
figures instead of words.
• Make sure that you properly label your tables
• The the reader may chose to skim through the charts, tables and
figures presented in your results section to get a quick grasp of the
results.
Discussion/Conclusion
• This section answers the question: “What do the results mean?”.
• The results obtained are not isolated from previous scientific knowledge.
• The researcher shall provide the reader with interpretation of the results
in the context of the existing body of scientific knowledge.
• A researcher shall make a statement on how the interpretation of the
results has addressed on the research objectives.
• the results component should contain the following considerations:
– summing the work in the output of the work accomplished;
– give further research direction or suggestions.
References
• The references section lists all the previously published sources of
information that the researcher cited in the body of the paper.
• Only the papers cited, not all the papers that the researcher read or
consulted, are referenced.
• A researcher may even include unscientific sources such as:
– newspaper articles,
– notes from interviews, etc.
– unpublished results that you obtained through professional acquaintances
• Reference citation
– the authors,
– the title of the article,
– the journal name,
– the year of publication,
– the volume and number of the journal and finally the page numbers in which
the article cited is found.
Appendices
• Forms used, a more detailed presentation of
your results, etc.
• The inclusion of an appendix is decided on a
case-by-case basis and is not essential to make
the report technically complete.
Oral Presentation
• Use presentation aids.
– LCD projector, OHP, flip chart etc.
• The presentation software (power point)
makes the task of preparing, editing and
displaying slides much more easier and user
friendly.
Preparing an Oral Presentation
Stylistic Issues: The Slide

1. Layout: The background color of the slide and the color
of the text should have a sharp contrast.
2. Background: After you have chosen an appropriate
background for your slides, stick to your choice and use
the same background throughout the presentation.
3. Font: ‘Small’ case letters are easier to read than
‘CAPITALIZED’ letters. Begin with a font size of 24.
4. Do not write every single word on slides in full
sentences
The Presenter
Physical Appearance
• Try and dress appropriately.
• certain “don’ts”
– Do not dress shabbily/poorly/
– Do not come with unkempt hair
– Do not wear slippers
– Do not wear jeans and T-shirt, or other extremely
casual attire
Organization
• A well-organized oral presentation is:
– smooth
– effectively communicates the core concepts of the presentation
to the audience
• Basic organizational principles
• The entire presentation should be related to:
– the topic thesis,
– hypothesis,
– objective or question
– Avoid side issues which distract the audience from the core
idea(s)
•End

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Instructor: Demis A (PhD)

July: 2013. E.C.

• Concept and Meaning of Research

• Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research

• The possible motives for doing research may be either

 If the answers to a research

• This step of the research process is

• A research problem may come from several 3

Institutions Source Existi

• For example, a researcher observed

• This experience may provide ideas to

PM gets plenty of ideas to formulate

•Every curious PM has several

•When we critically study books & articles

•Usually at the end of a research further

•Research is a process of theory

• Brainstorming sessions are good techniques

•During field exposure, researchers get

•In addition, expert may help in finding a

• Defining a research problem properly and

• It is a tentative, yet testable statement, which

• A research objective is a statement of intent used in

• A dependent variable is an attribute or characteristic

what is research proposal?

…deals with ideas of researcher about

• c. If the problem is too familiar

• d. If the problem is too technical and of

Sources and Methods of

Primary data is the data collected by the researcher

Business Research Methods 133

Experiments and observational study

– Other confounding factors

• It takes less time to collect secondary data.

• You may not need to worry about informed

consent/permittion/, human subjects restrictions,

07/28/2023 Chap-5 Reserach Design 163

07/28/2023 Chap-5 Reserach Design 164

A variety of methods are available to conduct

07/28/2023 Chap-5 Reserach Design 165

07/28/2023 Chap-5 Reserach Design 166

07/28/2023 Chap-5 Reserach Design 169

07/28/2023 Chap-5 Reserach Design 170

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• ◆ The investigators correlate two or more

Pearson correlation 0.090 1

Sig. (2-tailed) 0.085

Pearson correlation -0.103* -0.029 1

Sig. (2-tailed) 0.048 0.571

N 371 372 372

Pearson Correlation 0.836** 0.360** -0.124* 1

Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 0.017

Skip interval ( I) = Population list size

• For example, there are 100,000 elements in the population

07/28/2023 Chap-6 Sampling Design 214

6.1 Basic Objectives of Data Analysis

There are three objectives in data analysis:

Pearson Correlation 0.836 0.360 -0.124* 1