NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY

Natural radioactivity is the spontaneous decay of the atoms of certain

isotopes into other isotopes and is characterized by the emission of alpha (α), or
beta (β) particles, gamma rays (γ) and other types of radiation. The products of the
decay or daughters may be stable or may undergo further decay until a stable
isotope is finally created. A radioactive series refers to a group of isotopes including
these initial radioisotope and all its stable and unstable daughters.
Among the three types of radiation, the α and β particles do not penetrate
far enough and difficult to be detected. The gamma rays have a very high power of
penetration and consequently can be detected easily in the well bore by wireline
tool. Therefore they are of prime interest in the oil industry.
Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation which are emitted from a
nucleus in the excited state when the nucleus tends to drop to a lower energy
excited state or the lowest energy ground state. Gamma ray radiation represent the
highest energy portion of the electromagnetic spectrum and energy in terms of KeV
(103 eV) or the MeV (106 eV).
Gamma rays photons interact with matter in three different ways viz. (a)
pair production, (b) Compton scattering and (c) Photoelectric effect.
ORIGIN OF NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY IN ROCKS

The radioisotopes with sufficiently long life and whose decay produces an
appreciable amount of gamma rays are Potassium, Uranium and Thorium. They are
generally abundant enough in rocks to be detected easily by sensors, especially
while recording in wells using wireline. In the Table 1 below, the common radioactive
elements present in the earth’s crust and their relative abundance is presented.
Potassium decays into two stable isotopes (argon and calcium) which are
no longer radioactive, and emits gamma rays with energies of 1.46 MeV. Uranium
and thorium, however, decay into daughter- products which are unstable (i.e.
radioactive). The decay of uranium forms a series of about a dozen radioactive
elements in nature which finally decay to a stable isotope of lead. The decay of
thorium forms a similar series of radio elements. As each radioelement in the series
decays, it is accompanied by emissions of alpha or beta particles or gamma rays.
The gamma rays have specific energies associated with the decaying radionuclide.
The most prominent of the gamma rays in the uranium series originate from decay
of 214Bi (bismuth), and in the thorium series from decay of 208Tl (thallium).
 Table 1:Main radioisotopes elements

Element Percentag Emissions Half life Relative

Isotopes e of total (years) abundance in
element α β γ earth’s crust
% (ppm)

-Primeval 0.0118 8 1 1 1.3 X 2.5

Natural Gamma ray 0.72 5 * 109 0.02
emitters 7.1 X
•Potassium 108
40
K
•Uranium
235
U
-Secondary 99.27 8 6 * 4.5 X 3
Gamma ray emitters by 7 5 * 109 12
their daughters 1.4 X
•Uranium series 1010
238
U
•Thorium series
232
Th
*Prominent γ – rays are emitted by their daughters
The noticeable energy level (i.e. peak) of the gamma rays emitted by Potassium,
Uranium and Thorium are 1.46MeV, 1.76MeV and 2.614MeV respectively (figure 1).
Because there should be an equilibrium relationship between the daughter
product and parent, it is possible to compute the quantity (concentration) of parent
uranium (238U) and thorium (232Th) in the decay series by counting gamma rays
from 214Bi and 208Tl respectively.
The detection of radiation from radioactive elements present in rocks either
in total or in ratio of the different elements helps in understanding of their
concentration. This in turn indirectly aides in identification of the earths materials in
which they are present and their evolution procedure can be identified to a certain
extent.
FIG. 1 Noticeable energy peaks of gamma rays in U, Th and K
Radioactivity of different formations
Gamma-ray measurements detect variations in the natural radioactivity
originating from changes in concentrations of the trace elements uranium (U) and
thorium (Th) as well as changes in concentration of the major rock forming element
potassium (K). The concentrations of these naturally occurring radioelements vary
between different rock types.

RADIOACTIVITY OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

In sedimentary rocks, potassium is, in general, the principal source of

natural gamma radiation, primarily originating from clay minerals such as illite and
montmorillonite. Quartz crystals have a strong well-ordered structure. This tends to
eliminate any impurities from the quartz structure. Since sandstone’s are mainly
constituted of quartz, they generally exhibit low radioactivity. Feldspars and micas
contain a large portion of the earth’s potassium fraction. This mineral group
decomposes at a relatively rapid rate into the clay minerals. Clay has small
individual particle size and a relatively open lattice structure that is characterize by
weaker bonding. This open structure encourages the inclusion of impurities. During
deposition, clay absorbs heavy radioactive elements that are practically impossible
to leach out.
Since shales are composed of small clay particles, shales tend to be considerably
higher in radioactivity than other formations. Carbonate rocks were developed from
calcareous marine life skeletal matter. Since little radioactivity is present in living
organisms, carbonate rocks are generally low in radioactivity. Dolomite is formed
from chemical reaction between limestone and dissolved magnesium in migrating
ground waters. This process is called dolomitization. Since ground waters contain
dissolved radioactive isotopes, in the process of dolomitization some isotopes may
be deposited. For this reason, dolomite have a small but higher amount of natural
radiation with it than do the limestone’s and maybe radioactive, especially in vuggy
and/or fractures intervals.
Geological characteristics major radioactive elements
3.1 URANIUM (U)
The average concentration of uranium in the earths crust is about 3 ppm.
The original sources, or parent rocks, are the silicic igneous rocks (granite,
granodiorite, syenite, rhyolite, etc.) in which uranium exists in a number of accessory
minerals.
Although uranium can exists in four valency state, U3+, U4+, U5+ and U6+
in natural materials, it is generally present as either U4+ (the uranous form) or U6+
(the uranyl form) but the main geochemical characteristic of uranium is that it is
easily oxidized into the uranyl ion UO22+ by bacterial action. It is water soluble in
alkaline or oxidizing environments and less soluble in the presence of organic matter
and sulfides. Because of its water solubility, uranium can be a very mobile element.
Uranium is insoluble in acidic or reducing environments and can be absorbed into
iron compounds. Uranium will precipitate with variation in temperature, pH, pressure
and flow conditions.
Since it is water soluble, uranium is not found in surface rocks, especially
carbonates, due to leaching. Waters are oxidizing and often alkaline in these
environments. Uranium rich percolating waters may deposit uranium in permeable,
reducing and/or acidic reservoirs. This is especially true in the presence of organic
matter or H2S.
Uranium can be present along paths of vertical water migration, i.e. along faults, in
unconformable layers and in fracture zones. This is because uranium salts, being
soluble, can be transported by liquid movement. This is especially true in deeper
(reducing) environments. Low uranium below an unconformity implies little fluid
movement through the bed since this zone leached at surface. Uranium may
appear at oil/water contacts, especially in high sulfur crudes since it precipitates
out of water in the presence of sulfur.
Trends toward increasing uranium at increasing depths may imply a
transgressive sequence since deeper waters tends to be more reducing (hence the
uranium would precipitate out). This is especially true when compared to thorium
since thorium is stable with respect to oxidation conditions.
Detrital uraninite or heavy uranium bearing minerals occurs in some early
Pre Cambrian rocks, probably indicating low oxygen content in the atmosphere at
the time of their formations depending on Eh and pH conditions
OCCURRENCE IN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Uranium is associated with both detrital and chemical sediments as:-
● Shales → [absorbed by clay, associated with organic matter (e.g. bituminous
shale) or associated with heavy minerals]
● Arkosic conglomerate, arkose and greywacke sandstones or associated with
rock fragments.
● Tuffs and tuffaceous Sandstones
● Phosphates
● Carbonates → [under reducing condition, or, in limestones rich in organic matter
(e.g. bituminous limestones), or, in stylolites, or in fractures]
THORIUM (Th)
The average concentration of thorium in the earths crust is about 12
ppm. Its original sources or parent rocks, like uranium, are the silicic igneous
rocks in which it exists in a number of minerals. Average concentration of Th in
igneous rocks is 3.5 to 4 times that of uranium and the Th/U ratio is quite
constant.
Thorium is generally insoluble in water and is stable with respect to
oxidation conditions. Because of this, it can be present in all marine deposition
environments. Thorium has a tendency to concentrate in residual minerals such
as bauxite and clay minerals. Significant concentrations are also found in heavy
minerals such as monazite.
Most clays seem to contain thorium. However, some montmorillonites
have low thorium content. The amount of thorium fixed in clay minerals remains
constant in spite of thermal diagnoses. In shale series, this amount usually ranges
from 8 to 20 ppm, depending on the clay content.
OCCURRENCE IN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Thorium is associated only with detrital sediments and never with purely
chemical sediments. Hence it will be found:-
● within Mudstone → [absorbed by clay or associated with heavy minerals like
THORITE (Thorium Uranium Silicate) THOROGUMMITE (Thorium Uranium Silicate
Hydroxide), MONAZITE (Cerium Lanthanum Thorium Neodymium Yttrium
Phosphate)]
● Residual sediments like bauxite, kaolinite and bentonite.
● Tuffs and tuffaceous Sandstones → [subdivision of sandstone including
those of volcanic origin]
● Arkosic conglomerate, arkose and greywacke sandstones or associated with
rock fragments.
POTASSIUM (K)
The average concentration of potassium in the earths crust is about 2.6%.
The original sources, or parent rocks, are chiefly the silicic igneous rocks where it is
present as potassium feldspars (orthoclase, microcline), micas and a number of
other minerals. The average concentration of K2O of igneous rocks is equal to
3.13% compared to 2.87% for sediments.
During the alteration process, feldspar and micas are largely destroyed.
Depending upon the degree of weathering, one of the following clay minerals may
be produced; illite, interlayered illite-montmorillonite, montmorillonite, chlorite and
kaolinite. A small part of the total potassium concentration enters into the formation
of some of those minerals, but the major part is dissolved by water. In arid regions,
this large part tends to remain with the products of alteration (residuals). In other
regions, it is transported by rivers to the sea.
In water, the potassium ion has a very weak ionic potential and can stay in
real solution under a wide range of pH. Generally, during transportation, most of the
potassium is absorbed by clays and extracted from the water by plants.
Thus, only a small part of the original potassium arrives at the sea, which
has an average potassium concentration of 380 ppm. One fraction of the potassium
is dissolved in the sea water and extracted by organisms like algae. Another part
reacts with clay minerals (e.g. with kaolinite to give illite). At least several potassium
minerals (e.g. sylvite, langbeinite, kainite) can crystallize directly from sea water
brines to give potassium evaporates. These minerals represent the maximum
concentrations of potassium in rocks.
3.3.1 OCCURRENCE IN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Potassium is essentially associated with the following sedimentary rocks:-

● Granite pebble (arkosic) conglomerate, greywacke conglomerate, arkose and
greywacke → [i.e. rocks with more feldspar and matrix percentage]
● “Greensand” or glauconitic sandstone → [Glauconite, K(Fe,Mg,AL)2(Si4O10)
(OH)2]
● Tuffs and tuffaceous Sandstones → [subdivision of sandstone including those of
volcanic origin]
● Evaporites
● Limestones (of algal origin)
● Phosphates
Gamma ray logging tool
Gamma ray tools
There are presently two types of tools to record the natural formation
gamma radiation from radioactive isotopes of uranium, thorium and potassium.
(a) Gross (simple)/Natural Gamma tool
→ it records the total gamma activity in the well bore
→ without regard to the source
(b) Spectral Gamma Ray tool
→ it is a spectral analyzer; identifies the source of the gamma ray
→ gives the contribution (concentration) of each of the elements (K, Th
and U) to the overall spectrum (count rate)

Principles of Gamma-Ray Tools

A gamma-ray probe's sensor is usually a sodium iodide or cesium iodide

scintillation detector.
Gross (simple)/Natural Gamma tool

This simple gamma tool consists of a detector and a counter. The detector
is usually a scintillation type that outputs a discrete electrical pulse for each gamma
ray detected. Although the height of the pulses is proportional to incident gamma
energy, the basic gamma tool does not sort the pulses; it merely counts those
above some discrimination level. Therefore the processed information is merely the
count rate (counts/second) per depth sample.

Spectral Gamma Ray tools

The basic construction of a Spectral Gamma Ray tool is essentially the

same as the simple gamma tool but here each pulse detected is now placed
(counted) in a channel representing a certain energy level. There is at least 256
channels (corresponding to a spectrum utilizing an 8 bit analog to digital converter,
28 = 256 possible states or channels over an energy range of approximately 0.07 to
3.0 MeV are recorded from a scintillation detector in the probe. Scintillation
detectors of different materials and of different sizes as shown in the table 2 below:-
Name Composition Density (g/cm3)

Cesium Iodide CsI (Na) 4

Sodium Iodide NaI (Tl) 3.67

Bismuth Germanate Bi4 Ge3 O12 7.0

(BGO)

Table 2. Common Scintillation sensors

The probe (and detector) selection is determined by the hole diameter. The
largest diameter probe that will safely fit in the borehole will maximize the count
rate and provide the best counting statistics.
For smaller probes, the higher density (higher efficiency) materials are
chosen. (These are also higher cost). If the count rate is too low due to the
extremely low concentrations of K, U and Th, as is often the case in limestones
for example, it is not possible to produce K, U and Th logs. In that case only the
Total Count log, which is the count rate of all gamma rays above preselected
threshold energy (usually 100 KeV or 400 KeV), is produced.
While the probe is moving along the hole, the gamma rays are sorted
into an energy spectrum and the number of gamma rays in pre-selected energy
windows centered over 40K, 214Bi and 208Tl peaks in the spectrum are computed
each second, as is the total gamma-ray count. These four numbers represent
gamma rays originating from potassium, uranium, thorium and Total Count (TC)
detected during that one second of counting time.
 These data are recorded along with the depth and are displayed on the
chart recorder to produce gamma-ray spectral logs. Figure 2 is an example of a
spectral log i.e. Compensated Spectral Natural Gamma Log or CSNG. The raw
gamma-ray spectral logs (Total Count log, K log, U log and Th log) provide more
information than a non-spectral (gross count) log, and it is possible to convert
them to quantitative logs of K, U and Th concentrations. This requires that the
probe be calibrated in model boreholes with known concentrations of K, U and
Th.
Because gamma rays can be detected through steel, logging can be
done inside drill pipe or casing with a slight decrease in sensitivity.

A number of factors determine the logging speeds and sample times

during the acquisition of gamma-ray data. The critical factors are the anticipated
levels of radioactivity and the size of detector in the probe. Gamma-ray spectral
logging is usually done at 3 m/minute but can be done as fast as 6 m/minute or
as slow as 0.5 m/minute for more detailed information.
GAMMA RAY DETECTORS
Basically two types of gamma detectors have been used in the logging
industry: Greiger-Mueller and scintillation detectors (Figure 3). In the NGRT,
scintillation detector containing sodium iodide (NaI) crystal was used. When a
gamma ray strikes the crystal, photons of light are emitted. These photons then
strike the photo-cathode of a photomultiplier tube (PMT). When the photons
strikes the photo-cathode a shower of electrons are released. These, in turn are
accelerated in an electric field to strike further electrodes (called dynodes) also in
the PMT, producing an even larger shower of electrons. This process is repeated
through a number of stages, until a final electrode (the anode), conducts current
through a measurement resistor to produce a voltage pulse that can be
measured. The amplitude of the output pulse is directly related to the energy of
the original gamma ray
Scintillation Detector
Example of a CSNG ratio log of NMK-002 (Loc. DFN)
UNIT OF MEASUREMENT
In order to output a standard result log, independent of tool systems, a
unit of measurement called the A.P.I. unit is used. The API unit is defined as the
one two-hundredth of the differences in curve deflection between zones of low
radiation/cool zone (from neat Portland cement) and high radiation/hot zone (of
artificial shale actually cement mixed with 13ppm U, 24ppm Th and 4% K) in the
API gamma ray calibration pit in Houston, Texas.

BOREHOLE EFFECT
All gamma tools (spectral and natural) are referenced to an arbitrary set
of standard borehole conditions. When non-standard conditions are encountered,
the intensity as well as the spectral shape changes due to variations in the
scattering and absorption properties of the borehole. Therefore, corrections need
to be applied if we are to obtain useful and quantitative formation data. In general,
these corrections reflect variations in:
Hole size
Mud density
Tool position
Casing diameter
Casing weight
Cement thickness
Applications of gamma ray logs
IDENTIFICATION OF LITHOLOGY

Naturally radioactive elements tend to have a far greater concentration in

shales than in other sedimentary lithologies; therefore, Gamma-ray logs are
important for detecting alteration zones, and for providing information on rock types.
For example, in sedimentary rocks, sandstones can be easily distinguished from
shales due to the low potassium content of the sandstones compared to the shales.
The basic gamma ray log is effective in distinguishing permeable zones by virtue of
the fact that radioactive elements can be highly concentrated in the shales, which
are impermeable (and also have high CEC values; the ability of most of the clay
mineral in the shale to absorb and hold water) and much less concentrated in sands
and carbonates, which are generally permeable. Figure 4 shows some typical
responses in different lithologies in Well No. NHK # 534. In this figure, apart from
clean sand and shale response of the GR log, the demarcation and identification of
the different lithologies in most of the cases can only be confirmed with the help of
other logs like SP, Porosity, Density, Resistivity Logs etc.
Evaporitic environment

Here, NGRT alone can

→ differentiate between shales and potassium salts since the latter have
higher K content(no Th content and a relatively flat and near zero U
curve).
→ recognize the mineral types present in the rocks and evaluate their
percentage (by cross plot techniques/computation from a set of
equations).

Sand – Shale series

Clean sandstones especially orthoquartzites have low radioactivity (i.e.

Th, U and K content is very low). In sandstones, high K values may be caused by
the presence of potassium feldspars or micas. In ocean floor volcanics, K can
become significantly enriched in secondary alteration minerals, which are typically
found where the formation is more permeable and intense fluid-rock interactions
can occur (Brewer et al. 1992).
But sometimes sands or sandstones which do not contain significant
percentages of clay, are radioactive. In these cases, the origin of the radioactivity
can be recognized with the help of natural gamma ray logs and permits us in most
of the cases:-
(I) to compute a better shale or clay percentage
If GRmax is read in shales, GRmin in clean formations and GR in shaly
formations, and index (Icl) can be calculated as
(Icl) GR = (GR - GRmin)/ (GRmax- GRmin) ……………… (A)
An upper limit of the shale content in any type of formation is given by
(Vcl) GR = (Icl) GR

In consolidated rock, the shale estimate is better approximated with

(Vcl)GR = 0.33(22(Icl)GR-1)

and in soft unconsolidated formations as

(Vcl) GR = 0.083(23.7(Icl)GR-1)

(Icl)GR may also be obtained using an equation identical to (A) with the data
of the K or Th curve or the sum (CGR) if a natural gamma spectral log is available
i.e.

(V sh)TH = (Th -Th min)/ (Th sh- Th min) * (V sh)K = (K-Kmin)/ (Ksh – Kmin) *

(V sh )CGR = (CGR-CGRmin)/ (CGRsh – CGRmin)

 (II) to determine the nature and the percentage of the radioactive
minerals present in the sands.
Such sands correspond to one of the following groups.
(a) Feldspathic sandstones/Arkoses
Such detrital sands show low Th/K ratio (<1 X 10-4) due to low Th and
high K.
(See figures )

Mineralogical identification by the Th/K ratio study as given by the NGS

tool (from Hasan & Hossin, 1975)
Thorium content of clays as a function of the aluminium content.
(from Hasan & Hossin, 1975)
(b) Micaceous sandstone
K % is higher but relatively lower than the above sandstones.
Therefore Th/K ratio will be higher (close to 2.5 X 10-4)

(c) Mixed Feldspathic-micaceous sandstones/graywackes

Here the above ratio will be of intermediate values between (a) and (b).

(d) Heavy minerals within sandstones

Heavy minerals like zircon, allanite, monazite and sphene are rich in U and Th.
Hence in these sandstones the Th/K ratio will be high since K is also relatively
less.

(e) “Greensands” or glauconitic sandstone

Glauconite [K(Fe,Mg.Al)2(Si4O10)(OH)2] usually produces a very
distinctive, almost diagnostic spike in the K log (Figure ).
FIG. Spectral gamma ray data showing high K values due to the
presence of glauconite
(f) Shaly sands and sandstones

They are mainly composed of quartz with variable amount of mica and feldspar.
The clay minerals are mainly kaolinite and chlorite with traces of illite. These
sands can be identified by fluctuations of the U, Th, K (plus their ratios) and the
total GR in the log. (See Table 3, 4 and 5). The type of clay can also be found
out by cross plot techniques of the Th/K ratio as shown in figures 8.1 and 8.2 for
the well NMK-02 in the depth intervals of 4023 – 4069m (fig. 8.1 which shows
the presence of mixed layered clay i.e. illite + smectite) and 4069 – 4165m (fig.
8.2 showing kaolinite). It should be noted that montmorillonite (which swells in
contact with water) which have high CEC will show low Resistivity and limestone
can occur with it since it is form in an alkaline environment. High Resistivity will
be shown by kaolinite clay (which so not swell in contact with water) since it has
low CEC and no limestone can occur with it since it is form in an acidic
environment.
From the fact that one can define the type and the percentage of the clays
present in the rocks, one can compute a parameter related to the cation
exchange capacity.
FIG. 8.1 X-plot for clay identification of NMK-02 (4023 – 4069m) showing mixed
layered clay
FIG. 8.2 X-plot for clay identification of NMK-02 showing Kaolinite
Carbonate series
Pure Carbonate → Th is absent, K nears zero and U is low (oxidizing
environment)
If U shows some percentage, it indicates
→ rock is deposited in a restricted reducing environment
→ compact carbonate with stylolites (contain U as impurities)
→ or due to phosphate bearing levels
If U, K and Th are present
→ indicate clays is present in carbonates (clayey carbonates or
marls)
If K is present and if U=0
→ indicate a carbonate rock of algal origin/carbonate with
glauconite
 TABLE 3 Potassium bearing minerals in sand-shale
series

Name K content (% weight)

- FELDSPAR 16 (ideal) to 10.9
(Alkali, Microcline, Orthoclase, 14 (ideal) to 11.8
Anorthoclase)
Plagioclases
- MICA
Muscovite 9.8 (ideal) to 7.9
Biotite 6.2 – 10.1 (av. : 8.5)
Illite 3.51 – 8.31 (av. : 6.7)
Glauconite 3.2 – 5.8(av. : 4.5)
Phlogopite 6.2 – 10.1 (av. : 8.5)
- FELDSPATHOIDS
Metasilicates, leucite 17.9 (ideal)
(Orthosilicates, Nephelite, 4-8
Kaliophilite)
- OTHER CLAY MINERALS
Montmorillonite 0 – 4.9 (av. : 1.6)
Chlorite 0 – 0.35 (av. : 0.1)
Kaolinite 0 – 0.6 (av. : 0.35)
TABLE 4 Thorium and uranium content of some major minerals
(From Clark & al., 1966)

MINERALS Th (ppm) U (ppm)

MICAS:
Biotite .5 – 50 1 – 40
Muscovite 10 – 25 2–8
POTASSIUM FELDSPAR 3–7 .2 – 3
PLAGIOCALSE .5 – 3 .2 – 5
HORNBLENDE 5 – 50 1 – 30
OLIVINE low .01 .01 - 40
PYROXENE 2 - 25
TABLE 5 Thorium and uranium content of clay minerals (Data from
Adams & Weaver, 1958; Clark & al., 1966; Hassan & al., 1975)

MINERALS Th (ppm) U (ppm)

Illite 10 – 25 1.5
Montmorillonite 10 – 24 2–5
Bentonite 4 – 55 1 – 36
Kaolinite 6 – 42 1.5 – 9
Chlorite 3–5 3 - 30
Glauconite <10
Bauxite 10 - 132
IDENTIFICATION OF FACIES AND DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT

The shape of the gamma log curve may be used to reconstruct grain size
variation, and infer changes in sedimentary facies: the standard approach is to
interpret bell shaped gamma curves as a fining-upwards sequence and funnel
shaped gamma curves as a coarsening-upward sequence (Serra & Sulpice 1975).
However, these methods are only likely to be of use in simple sandstone/shale
formations, and are subject to error when a significant proportion of the gamma ray
radioactivity originates from the sand sized detrital fraction of the rock (Heslop
1974 and Rider 1990).Gamma ray data may also be used to help interpret the
environment of deposition. Unconformities can result in the accumulation of
phosphatic nodules, which may be evident in the spectral gamma log as an
anomalous spike in U. Increased U values, and in particular low Th/U ratios, may
also be associated with marine condensed sequences (Myers & Wignall 1987).
Doveton (1991) used Th/U ratios to estimate paleo-redox conditions at the time of
deposition, which he used to identify generally transgressive and regressive
intervals. The Glauconitic sandstones having higher K-values indicate that it is
form in an environment of normal salinity, weakly reducing condition and a slow
rate of deposition mostly of marine deposits in continental shelf condition.
MINERALOGY/GEOCHEMISTRY

The concentrations of the three main radioactive elements in the formation

can often be used to give an indication of the mineralogy and/or geochemistry. For
example, high Th values may be associated with the presence of heavy minerals,
particularly in channel sand deposits overlying an erosional unconformity.
Increased Th values may also be associated with an increased input of terrigenous
clays (Hassan et al. 1976)

More quantitative attempts have been made to derive a mineralogy from

the spectral gamma-ray log, which generally involve cross-plotting Th against K
(Quirein 1982). However, the validity of these methods is questionable (Hurst
1990), and it is unlikely that they are applicable in a wide variety of sedimentary
environments.
WELL TO WELL CORRELATION

Furthermore, because the gamma ray log responds principally to

fluctuations in the formation's mineralogy, rather than physical properties such as
lithification, it is particularly useful for making regional, inter-hole comparisons
between major lithostratigraphic units and hence well to well correlation. Figure 9
shows a correlation of Prang and Narpuh top of three well in Tamulikhat area viz.
Tamulikhat well No. 1, 2 and 3 with the help of Limestone bands prominent in the
Prang formation. Peaks on thorium curves are often used for this purpose since
they correspond generally to volcanic ashes/bentonitic levels and consequently
can be considered as deposited at exactly the same time over a wide area.
FIG. 10 Well to well correlation from total gamma ray data (between Tamulikhat
well No. 1, 2 & 3)
DEPTH CORRELATION

Total gamma-ray log curves, which are acquired with every toolstring
combination, are normally used to depth match all of the logs obtained in any one
hole. For example, in figure 11, the total GR log taken with DLL-MSFL (open hole)
on 27.02.1998 of Tamulikhat-2 is used as the base curve is interactively matched
with the total GR log of the same well taken on 08.10.2001 along with along with
CBL-VDL.
FIG. 11 Depth correlation between same well (Tamulikhat-2)
DETECTION OF UNCONFORMITY

Abrupt changes in the mean Th/K ratio are generally indicative of

important variations in the proportion of the radioactive minerals which occur
when there are changes in geological conditions of deposition. These
corresponds to unconformities In Fig 12, it is observed that in most of the
cases, the GRTH API° value of the Tipam sands are relatively greater than
that of Barail sands in Makum-9 which is indicative of different depositional
environment.
FIG. 12 CSNG log showing differences in GRTH concentration in the two formation
(Makum-9)
OTHER APPLICATIONS

Besides the above stated applications, Gamma Ray Logs is also useful in
detection of fracture and stylolites. Circulation of hydrothermal or
underground waters through fractures may cause precipitation of the uranium salt,
uraninite under reducing condition. During compaction, insoluble impurities (clay
minerals, organic matter, iron oxides etc.) are often concentrated in thin layers
called stylolites, which can give uranium peaks since it is often associated with it.

Supernaw et al., (1978) observed a strong correlation between uranium

and organic material. Increases in U are frequently associated with the presence of
organic matter. For example, particularly high U concentrations (>~5 ppm) and low
Th/U ratios (<~2) occur in black shale deposits (Adams & Weaver 1958). A
correlation can often be observed between the U log and the total organic carbon
values measured in the core. So, after calibration with core data, it is possible to
evaluate the organic carbon content of source rock from its uranium content and
from that its hydrocarbon content (W.H. Fertl, 1983).
Most of the intrusive igneous rocks show a Th/U ratio close to 4 (except for syenite),
hence aides in igneous rock recognition. Deviation from this value seems to
indicate weathering effects (in which U is dissolved and eliminated by rain and
running waters), or oxidizing conditions before crystallisations of the magma or
intrusion of basic igneous rocks.

Diagenesis phenomenon can also be studied from gamma ray logs and,
in particular the Th/K ratio since diagenesis causes the alteration of clay, the
disappearance of kaolinite (which is transformed into illite), or a neogenesis in sands
(kaolinite). For example, under compaction, montmorillonite is transformed into illite,
passing through an intermediate illite – montmorillonite phase (Hassan and al.,
1976). This results in a decrease of the Th/K ratio with depth. In undercompacted
shales this trend will be reversed. In carbonate reservoirs, diagenesis strongly affects
the concentration and distribution of uranium (Hassan and al., 1976).

Direct estimation of the uranium content of the rocks, and consequently the
detection of the uranium ore can also be carried out by the Natural gamma ray
spectrometry.
Radioactive scaling

Abnormally high uranium content is frequently observed in front of

perforated intervals in old wells. This is due to the precipitation of radioactive salts
(radio-barite, Ba(Ra)SO4: Under dynamic conditions, radium isotopes are
transported through permeable reservoirs, during the primary production of a water-
flood operation, until final precipitation occurs at perforated (or around unperforated)
cased wellbores. This precipitation depends on variations in temperature, pressure,
flow and chemical equilibrium.
Clastic Sequence Stratigraphic Hierarchies

After G.S.C Kendal,1996

 Facies Association

Fining Upward sequences

Bell shaped Fluvial and braided Progradation
river deposits

Fining upward
Blocky and Mixed Sequences Progradation and Retrogradation
Delta plain deposit

Fining Upward and

occasionally
Spiked Coarsening upward
Progradation and Retrogradation
Delta front and Tidal delta

Fining Upward
Cylindrical Progradation and Aggradation
High Energy Environment

Facies Association
Coarse grained sandstones with coarse to fine grained sandstone
and having low angle current bedding, ripple cross lamination,
trough
trough cross
cross bedding
bedding and
and cross
crossbedding
bedding
Heterolithic sand stone of sandy mudstones containing small to large clasts
and thin mud drapes, structureless medium to fine sandstones
and slumped intervals, inverse grading
Silty shale facies composed of dark gray, hard and
compact, feebly calcareous, fissile shale.
 GRAIN SIZE &
SEDMENTARY STRUCTURES
GR DEPTH(M) (- ) MARINE (+) SED. ENVT

P
R
O
G
R
A
D
A
T
I
O
N

T
F
I LCM L
P
U
A
V
M
P
R
O
G
R
I
A
D
A
A
T
I
O
L
N
T
I P
P R
A O F
M G L
R U
V
A I
D A
A L
T
I
O
N

SAFRAI

RETROGRADATION

SAND
PROGRADATION SHALE