1.

Homogeneity and Heterogeneity

If the hydraulic conductivity K is independent of position within a

geologic formation, the formation is homogeneous. K(x,y,z) = C

If the hydraulic conductivity K is dependent of position within a

geologic formation, the formation is heterogeneous. K(x,y,z)  C.

2. Isotropy and Anisotropy

If the hydraulic conductivity K is independent of the direction of

measurement at a point in a geologic formation, the formation is
isotropic at that point. Kx = Ky = Kz
If the hydraulic conductivity K varies with the direction of
measurement at a point in a geologic formation, the formation is
anisotropic at that point. Kx  Ky  Kz
 Isotropy and Anisotropy
Most sediments are deposited in a preferential way: flat objects are laid
down flat. This leads to material that has a different effective K in different
directions. In a similar manner, if aquifer permeability is derived from joints
or faults, the pattern of the stress field is imposed upon the aquifer. If K
differs with direction, the material is anisotropic:
 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous

If the material is different from one location to the next, it is

called heterogeneous (whether or not it is isotropic or not)
Classes of Heterogeneity

Layered Heterogeneity
Discontinuous Heterogeneity
Trending Heterogeneity
Random Heterogeneity
 Anisotropy in Alluvium
In alluvium (formation formed by flowing water), anisotropy
results from two conditions:

1. Particle orientation
2. Layering of materials
1. Particle orientation
• Imbrication: Individual particles of granular subsurface
materials are seldom spherical. When deposited under
water, the particles usually come to rest on their flat side.

• Particles deposited in flowing water may be tilted slightly

upward in the direction of flow and overlap somewhat

• This arrangement, called imbrication, can often be

observed on granular deposited.

• The path of water molecules flowing through imbricated

material is more tortuous (full of bends) in vertical than in
horizontal directions.

• Consequently, the hydraulic conductivity Kz in a vertical

direction will be less than Kx in a horizontal direction.
2. Layering of Materials

Alluvium typically consists of layers of different materials with

different K values. If the layers are horizontal, any single layer
with a relatively low hydraulic conductivity causes vertical flow to
be retarded, but horizontal flow can occur easily through any
stratum of relatively high hydraulic conductivity.

1 n n
zi
Kx=
Z K
i=1
i zi Kz = Z/ 
i=1 K i
 Hydraulic Conductivity Ellipsoid
When applying Darcy's law to an anisotropic system, the
hydraulic conductivity must be taken with accordance with the
direction of flow (Kx for horizontal flow, Kz for vertical flow).
The K value in other directions is obtained from an ellipsoid
with (KX)1/2 and (KZ)1/2 as principal axes. The hydraulic
conductivity Ks in any direction θ is as:

1 cos  sin 
2 2 r
2
x2 z2
= + = +
or Ks Kx Kz
Ks Kx Kz
 Heterogeneous Systems and the Tangent Law
When groundwater flow lines cross a geologic boundary between two
formations with different values of hydraulic conductivity, they refract,
much as light does when it passes from one medium to another.
Consider a saturated flow from a medium with hydraulic conductivity K 1 to
a medium with hydraulic conductivity K2, where K2 > K1, the tangent law is:

K1 / K2 = tan θ1 / tan θ2
Where θ1 and θ2 are angles with the normal to the boundary.

K1
θ1
Layer Interface

θ2
K2

Refraction of Flow path

Problem #1
Three formations, each 6m thick, overlie one another. The hydraulic head at the
top of the sequence is 50 m. The hydraulic head at the base of the sequence is
70 m. Given that the hydraulic conductivity to water of the three formations is
0.0001m/s (top), 0.0005m/s (middle), and 0.001m/s (bottom), calculate the
hydraulic head at the boundary between the top and middle formation and the
middle and bottom formation.
h0 = 50
d 1 = d2 = d3 = 6 m
1 h1 = ?
K1 = 0.0001 m/s
2
h2 = ? K2 = 0.0005 m/s
3
h3 =70 K3 = 0.001 m/s

This problem can be simply solved if it is remembered that the volume flux
(q) through the problem domain must remain constant. We can then use
Darcy's Law to write two different equations in the two unknown values of
head at the boundaries between the units as shown in Figure
 Problem #1
(h1  h0 ) (h2  h1 ) (h3  h2 )
q  K1  K2  K3
d1 d2 d3
Substituting values gives:

(h1  50) (h2  h1 ) (70  h2 )

q  0.0001  0.0005  0.001
6 6 6

We can use parts of this equality to form two independent equations

in the unknown values h1 and h2.

The answers are h1 = 65.38 and h2 = 68.46.

Note that the majority of the head loss occurs across the top layer,
because this is the layer with the lowest hydraulic conductivity.
Problem #2
Given a potentiometric surface with a regional slope of 5m/km, calculate the
natural rate of ground-water discharge from a unit width of confined aquifer.
The aquifer thickness is 5m and the aquifer hydraulic conductivity is 5.0 × 10 -4
ms-1.
Solution
gradient = i = 5/1000
hydraulic conductivity K = 0.0005 m/s
aquifer thickness = b = 5 m

The area of aquifer normal to the flow is the thickness times the width.
The area of a unit width of the aquifer = A = 5 m2.

Q=KiA

the discharge per unit width is

Q = 1.08 m3/day/ m