Human Psychology &

Behavior
The Foundation of Memory
 Memory
The process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information. Each of the three parts of
this definition— encoding, storage, and retrieval—represents a different process. . You can
think of these processes as being analogous to a computer’s keyboard (encoding), hard
drive (storage), and software that accesses the information for display on the screen
(retrieval).
Memory is built on three basic processes—encoding, storage, and retrieval—that are
analogous to a computer’s keyboard, hard drive, and software to access the information for
display on the screen. The analogy is not perfect, however, because human memory is less
precise than a computer. How might you modify the analogy to make it more accurate?
In this three-stage model of memory, information initially recorded by the person’s sensory system
enters sensory memory, which briefly holds the information. The information then moves to short-
term memory, which stores it for 15 to 25 seconds. Finally, the information can move into long-term
memory, which is relatively permanent. Whether the information moves from short-term to long-
term memory depends on the kind and amount of rehearsal of the material that is carried out.
The three-system memory theory proposes the existence of the three separate
memory stores.

 Sensory memory: The initial, momentary storage of information, lasting

only an instant.
 Short-term memory: Memory that holds information for 15 to 25
seconds.
 Long-term memory: Memory that stores information on a relatively
permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve.
Rehearsal: The repetition of information that has entered short-term
memory.

First, as long as the information is repeated, it is maintained in short-term

memory. More important, however, rehearsal allows us to transfer the
information into long-term memory.

In contrast, if the information in short-term memory is rehearsed using a

process called elaborative rehearsal, it is much more likely to be transferred
into long-term memory.
Working Memory:
Short-term memory is referred to as working memory and defined as a set of temporary
memory stores that actively manipulate and rehearse information.

Working memory is thought to contain a central executive processor that is involved in

reasoning and decision making. The central executive coordinates three distinct
storage-and-rehearsal systems: the visual store, the verbal store, and the episodic buffer.
The visual store specializes in visual and spatial information, whereas the verbal store
holds and manipulates material relating to speech, words, and numbers. The episodic
buffer contains information that represents episodes or events
Working memory is an active “workspace” in which information is retrieved and manipulated, and in which
information is held through rehearsal. It consists of a “central executive” that coordinates the visual store
(which concentrates on visual and spatial information), the verbal store (which concentrates on speech, words,
and numbers), and the episodic buffer (which represents episodes or occurrences that are encountered).
Long Term Memory:

Material that makes its way from short-term memory to long-term memory enters a
storehouse of almost unlimited capacity. Like a new file we save on a hard drive,
the information in long-term memory is filed and coded so that we can retrieve it
when we need it. Evidence of the existence of long-term memory, as distinct from
short-term memory, comes from a number of sources.
Long Term Memory Modules:

Just as short-term memory is often conceptualized in terms of working memory, many

contemporary researchers now regard long-term memory as having several different
components, or memory modules. Each of these modules represents a separate memory
system in the brain.
One major distinction within long-term memory is that between declarative memory and
procedural memory.
Declarative memory: Memory for factual information: names, faces, dates, and the like.
Procedural memory: Memory for skills and habits, such as riding a bike or hitting a
baseball, sometimes referred to as nondeclarative memory.
Declarative memory can be subdivided into semantic memory and episodic
memory.
Semantic memory: Memory for general knowledge and facts about the world, as
well as memory for the rules of logic that are used to deduce other facts.
Episodic memory: Memory for events that occur in a particular time, place, or
context.
Long-term memory can be subdivided into several different types. What type of long-term memory is involved
in your recollection of the moment you first arrived on your campus at the start of college? What type of long-
term memory is involved in remembering the lyrics to a song, compared with the tune of a song?
Semantic Networks:

Mental representations of clusters of interconnected information.

Semantic networks in memory consist of relationships between pieces of information, such as those
relating to the concept of a fire engine. The lines suggest the connections that indicate how the
information is organized within memory. The closer together two concepts are, the greater the
strength of the association.
 Recalling Long Term Memories

Have you ever tried to remember someone’s name, convinced that you knew it but
unable to recall it no matter how hard you tried? This common occurrence—known
as the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon—exemplifies how difficult it can be to
retrieve information stored in long-term memory.

Recall: Memory task in which specific information must be retrieved.

Recognition: Memory task in which individuals are presented with a stimulus and
asked whether they have been exposed to it in the past or to identify it from a list of
alternatives
Try to recall the names of these characters. Because this is a recall task, it is relatively
difficult
 Explicit and Implicit Memory
The discovery that people have memories about which they are unaware has been an important
one. It has led to speculation that two forms of memory, explicit and implicit, may exist side
by side.
Explicit memory refers to intentional or conscious recollection of information. When we try
to remember a name or date we have encountered or learned about previously, we are
searching our explicit memory.
Implicit memory refers to memories of which people are not consciously aware, but which
can affect subsequent performance and behavior. Skills that operate automatically and without
thinking. Perhaps the person reminds us of someone else in our past that we didn’t like, even
though we are not aware of the memory of that other individual.
 Forgetting when Memory Fails
One reason is that we may not have paid attention to the material in
the first place—a failure of encoding. Consequently, the reason for
your memory failure is that you probably never encoded the
information into long-term memory initially.

Several processes account for memory failures, including decay,

interference, and cue-dependent forgetting.
Decay: The loss of information in memory through its nonuse. This
explanation for forgetting assumes that memory traces, the physical
changes that take place in the brain when new material is learned,
simply fade away over time

Interference: The phenomenon by which information in memory

disrupts the recall of other information.

Cue-dependent forgetting: Forgetting that occurs when there are

insufficient retrieval cues to restore information that is in memory
 Proactive and Retroactive Interference: The before and
after of forgetting
There are actually two sorts of interference that influence forgetting:
proactive and retroactive.

Proactive interference: Interference in which information learned

earlier disrupts the recall of newer material.

Retroactive interference: Interference in which there is difficulty in

the recall of information learned earlier because of later exposure to
different material.