Alogorithm & Prolem Solving

Algorithms
Problem Solving
Topic & Structure of the lesson
Design
In this chapter you will learn about:

• Problem Solving
• Algorithm
• Pseudocodes
• Flowcharts
PSPD Using C Slide 2 of 40

Algorithmic Problem Solving
Design
Algorithmic problem:
Any problem whose solution can be expressed as a
set of executable instructions.
Algorithm:
A well defined computational procedure consisting of
a set of instructions, that takes some value or set of
values, as input, and produces some value or set of
values, as output.

Characteristics of an Algorithm
Design

 Each step of an algorithm must be exact,
preciously and ambiguously described.
 It must terminate, i.e. it contains a finite
number of steps.
 It must be effective, i.e.., produce the correct
output.
 It must be general, i.e.. to solve every
instance of the problem.

Problem Solving
Design
Processing
5 10
5 + 10 = 15
15
Input
Output
Let us assume we are interested in calculating the sum of 5
and 10.
Problem Solving
Design
As shown previously, the example values (5 and

10) have been specified explicitly.
As the brain is flexible enough in calculating a
wide range of numbers, the two input values
have to be generalised.

What Are Variables?
Design
Variables are memory locations within the computer which

allows pieces of data to be stored.
The word variable comes from the word vary, which means
that whatever you place within a variable can be changed.
A variable can be viewed as a container used to store

things.
Data (for example, name,

age, salary) can be stored in
these containers.
What Are Variables?
Design

Problem Solving
Design
Now that we have an exact idea about how the

problem is solved, let us represent this in a clearer
manner, using the defining diagram.
Input Processing Output
Value1 Sum
Value2

Problem Solving
Design
The next step is to identify the actual processing

steps required to convert the input to become the
output.
Value1 1) Read Value1, Value2 Sum

Value2 2) Calculate Sum
3) Display Sum

Algorithm Development
Design
Once the defining diagram has been
developed, the next logical step is to develop
the algorithm (which is much more detailed).
Value1 1) Read Value1, Value2 Sum

Value2 2) Calculate Sum
3) Display Sum
The developed processing steps have to be more

detailed in the algorithm.
Design
The basic mathematical operators used in algorithms
are as follows:-
+ addition
- subtraction
* multiplication
/ division
= assignment
() brackets for grouping calculations

Design
Example of an algorithm (using pseudocodes) which

can be used to carry out the tasks outlined in the
defining diagram is as follows:-
1) Read Value1, Value2

2) Calculate
Sum = Value1 + Value2
3) Display Sum
Pseudocoding
Design

A Pseudocode language is semiformal, English-
like language with a limited vocabulary that can be
used to design and describe algorithms.
The pseudocode language can be used for:

 Designing algorithms
 Communicating algorithms as programs
 Implementing algorithms as programs
 Debugging logic errors in program

Pseudocode for the Control Structures
Design

The Sequence Control Structure:
The sequence control structure is a series of steps
or statements that are executed in the order in which
they are written in an algorithm.
For Example:
read taxable income
read filing status
compute income tax

Cont’d
Design
The Selection Control Structure:

The selection control structure defines two courses of
action, depending on the outcome of a condition. A
condition is an expression that, when evaluated, computes
to either true or false.
Syntax is: if condition
then-part
else
else-part
end-if

Decision Making
Design
The expression is a comparison between

two values which evaluates to either true of
false.
IF (expression) THEN
:
:
ENDIF
Statements are
placed here.
Decision Making
Design
Example:-
We are looking for a job which pays more than
RM4000.
Example of an
Expression
IF (Salary>4000) THEN
Say "I Will Take The Job!!"
ENDIF

Decision Making
Design
Commonly used relational operators in expressions:-
> Greater Than

< Less Than
= Equals To
<> Not Equals To
>= Greater Than or Equals To
<= Less Than or Equals To
() Brackets used for prioritising certain calculations

Decision Making
Design
Since all expressions works out to be either true or false,

what the IF..THEN statement represents is a two-state
condition.
For example,
A potential employer is waiting for you to give a reply (on the
spot) about the job offer with a salary of RM2000. Your
decision would be to only take a job worth more than
RM4000. What would you say?
Say “YES!”
ELSE
Say “NO!”
ENDIF
Decision Making
Design
Certain conditions may give rise to more than

one expression being evaluated. These are
known as compound expressions.
Example:-
You are interested in taking up a job which pays
more than RM4000 and that the company must
also provide a credit card.
IF (Salary>4000) And (CreditCard=YES) THEN
Take Job!!
ENDIF

Decision Making
Design
Compound expressions can be represented

using the following operators:-
AND Every expression must evaluate to be

true in order for the whole expression to
be true.
OR As long as any one of the expression
can be true, the entire IF statement will
be true.
NOT The inverse (opposite) of the entire
expression.
Decision Making
Design
IF statements can be nested, that is, placed

within another IF statement.
This is used in situations when the expression
is more complex than the simple decisions (as
seen earlier).

Decision Making
For example, this statement......... Design
IF (Salary>4000) And (CreditCard=YES) THEN

Say “Yes I Will Take The Job!!”
ENDIF
can be represented like this.........
IF (CreditCard=YES) THEN
ELSE
Say “No Credit Card?”
Say “Sorry!!”
ENDIF
ELSE
Say “Not Enough Pay!!”
ENDIF
........ whereby more possibilities can be represented.
Decision Making
Design
For good practice...........
IF (CreditCard=YES) THEN
ELSE
Say “No Credit Card?”
Say “Sorry!!”
ENDIF
ELSE
Say “Not Enough Pay!!”
ENDIF
........ ensure that statements are properly

indented to indicate block of statements
which belong together.
Cont’d
Design

For Example:

if a is greater than b then
print “A is greater”
else
print “B is greater”
end if

Cont’d
Design
Repetition Control Structure:

The repetition control structure specifies a block of
one or more statements that are repeatedly executed
until a condition is satisfied.
Syntax is:
while condition
loop-body
end-while

Looping Constructs
Design
Looping constructs (also known as repetition or

iteration constructs) are a kind of construct found
in pseudocodes which allows statements (or a
group of statements) to be repeated.
The main reason why looping constructs are
provided is because most of the problems which
we encounter everyday requires some degree of
repetition.

Looping Constructs
Design
An example of a process which is iterative:-
Payroll processing is very much an iterative

process as the person processing the
payroll applies the same calculations for
each employee to produce the pay slip.

Looping Constructs
Design
The looping constructs available in pseudocodes

are as follows:-
DOWHILE...ENDDO
FOR…NEXT
REPEAT...UNTIL

Looping Constructs
Design
The format of the

DOWHILE...ENDDO construct is
shown below:-
DOWHILE (expression)
:
:
:
ENDDO
Group of An expression which determines
statements whether the loop will continue.
Looping Constructs
Design
The format of the FOR...NEXT

construct is shown below:-
FOR (initialze TO expression) STEP increment

:
:
:
ENDDO
Looping Constructs
Design
The format of the

REPEAT...UNTIL construct is
shown below:-
REPEAT
:
:
:
UNTIL (expression)
Looping Constructs
Design
Take a look at the following example:-
You are required to develop a complete system

which will allow the total payroll to be
calculated.
The system is required to read in the amount to
be paid for each employee.
The moment the system receives an input
value of -99, the system is required to stop and
display the total payroll.
Looping Constructs
Design
The Defining Diagram

Salary 1) Read Salary Total

2) Calculate Total
3) Display Total

Looping Constructs
Design
Algorithm (Using Pseudocodes)
1) Display "Enter Salary"
2) Read Salary
3) Total = 0
4) DOWHILE (Salary<>-99)
Total = Total + Salary
Display "Enter Salary"
Read Salary
ENDDO
5) Display "Total Payroll = ", Total
Cont’d
Design

Example:

Dowhile (income is less than 50000)
print “Enter taxable income;should be
greater than or equal to 50000”
read income
Enddo

Flowcharting
Design

 Another technique used in designing and representing
algorithms.

 Alternative to pseudocoing
 A pseudocode description is verbal, a flowchart is
graphical in nature.
Definition:
 A flowchart is a graph consisting of geometrical shapes
that are connected by flow lines.

Sequence Structure
Design

Pseudocode: Flowchart:

statement_1
Statement -1
statement_2
------------ Statement -2
statement_n
Statement -n

Selection Structure
Design


if condition
then-part
else false true
condition
else-part
end_if
else-part then-part

Selection Structure
Design

Pseudocode:
Flowchart:

if condition
Y
then-part true
end_if condition
N
then-part
false

Repetition Structure
Design
while condition
loop-body
end-while T
Y
condition loop-body
F
N

Summary of Main Teaching Points
Design
• Problem Solving
• Pseudocodes
• Flowcharts
• Basic control structures
• The sequence structure

• The selection structure
• The repetition structure

Example 1
Design
• A town contains 5000 houses. Each

house owner must pay tax based on the
value of the house. Houses over $200
000 pay 2% of their value in tax, houses
over $100 000 pay 1.5% of their value in
tax and houses over $50 000 pay 1% of
their value in tax. All others pay no tax.
Write an algorithm to solve this problem in
the form of a flowchart.

Design

Writing algorithms using pseudocode
Design
• for count = 1 to 5000
• input house
• if house > 50 000 then tax = house * 0.01
• else if house > 100 000 then tax = house *
0.015
• else if house > 200 000 then tax = house * 0.02
• else tax = 0
• print tax
• next

Example 2
Design
• The following formula is used to calculate

n: n = (x * x)/(1 – x). The value x = 0 is
used to stop the algorithm. The
calculation is repeated using values of x
until the value x = 0 is input. There is also
a need to check for error conditions. The
values of n and x should be output. Write
an algorithm to show this repeated
calculation in the form of a flowchart.

Design

Design
• input x
• while x <> 0 do
• if x = 1 then print “error”
• else n = (x * x)/(1 – x)
• print n, x
• endif
• input x
• endwhile

Example 3
Design
• Write an algorithm in the form of a

flowchart which takes temperatures input
over a 100 day period (once per day) and
outputs the number of days when the
temperature was below 20C and the
number of days when the temperature was
20C and above.

Design

Design
• total1 = 0: total2 = 0
• for days = 1 to 100
• input temperature
• if temperature < 20 then total1 = total1 + 1
• else total2 = total2 + 1
• endif
• next
• print total1, total2
Design
• case temperature of
• 1: total1 = total1 + 1
• 2: total2 = total2 + 1
• endcase

Example 4
Design
• A shop sells books, maps and magazines. Each item is
identified by a unique 4 – digit code. All books have a
code starting with 1, all maps have a code starting with 2
and all magazines have a code starting with 3. The code
9999 is used to end the algorithm.
• Write an algorithm in the form of a flowchart which

inputs the codes for all items in stock and outputs the
number of books, number of maps and the number of
magazines in stock. Include any validation checks
needed.

Design

• books = 0: maps = 0: mags = 0 Design
• repeat
• input code
• if code > 999 and code < 2000 then books = books + 1
• else if code > 1999 and code < 3000 then maps = maps + 1
• else if code > 2999 and code < 4000 then mags = mags + 1
• else print “error in input”
• endif:endif:endif
• until code = 9999
• print books, maps, mags

• books = 0: maps = 0: mags = 0 Design
• repeat
• input code
• x = INT(code/1000) * divides code by 1000 to give a
• case x of * number between 0 and 9
• 1: books = books + 1
• 2: maps = maps + 1
• 3: mags = mags + 1
• otherwise print “error”
• endcase
• until code = 9999
• print books, maps, mags

Alogorithm & Prolem Solving

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Algorithms

In this chapter you will learn about:

PSPD Using C Slide 2 of 40

PSPD Using C Slide 3 of 40

PSPD Using C Slide 4 of 40

As shown previously, the example values (5 and

PSPD Using C Slide 6 of 40

Variables are memory locations within the computer which

A variable can be viewed as a container used to store

Data (for example, name,

PSPD Using C Slide 8 of 40

Now that we have an exact idea about how the

Input Processing Output

PSPD Using C Slide 9 of 40

The next step is to identify the actual processing

Input Processing Output

Value1 1) Read Value1, Value2 Sum

PSPD Using C Slide 10 of 40

Input Processing Output

Value1 1) Read Value1, Value2 Sum

The developed processing steps have to be more

PSPD Using C Slide 12 of 40

Example of an algorithm (using pseudocodes) which

1) Read Value1, Value2

The pseudocode language can be used for:

PSPD Using C Slide 14 of 40

PSPD Using C Slide 15 of 40

The Selection Control Structure:

PSPD Using C Slide 16 of 40

The expression is a comparison between

PSPD Using C Slide 18 of 40

Commonly used relational operators in expressions:-

> Greater Than

PSPD Using C Slide 19 of 40

Since all expressions works out to be either true or false,

Certain conditions may give rise to more than

PSPD Using C Slide 21 of 40

Compound expressions can be represented

AND Every expression must evaluate to be

IF statements can be nested, that is, placed

PSPD Using C Slide 23 of 40

IF (Salary>4000) And (CreditCard=YES) THEN

........ ensure that statements are properly

PSPD Using C Slide 26 of 40

Repetition Control Structure:

PSPD Using C Slide 27 of 40

Looping constructs (also known as repetition or

PSPD Using C Slide 28 of 40

An example of a process which is iterative:-

Payroll processing is very much an iterative

PSPD Using C Slide 29 of 40

The looping constructs available in pseudocodes

PSPD Using C Slide 30 of 40

The format of the

The format of the FOR...NEXT

FOR (initialze TO expression) STEP increment

The format of the

Take a look at the following example:-

You are required to develop a complete system

The Defining Diagram

Salary 1) Read Salary Total

PSPD Using C Slide 35 of 40

PSPD Using C Slide 37 of 40