Lecture 4

Switching Algebra
 Today’s Topics
In this lecture we will cover the following:
Switching Algebra
Properties of Switching Algebra
Proving Properties of Switching Algebra
Example
Manipulation of Algebraic Function

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Definition of Switching
Algebra
Switching algebra is binary, that is, all variables and constants
take on one of two values: 0 and 1.
Quantities that are not naturally binary must then be coded
into binary format.
Physically, they may represent a light that is off (0) or on (1), or
a switch up (1) or down (0), or a low voltage (0) or a high one
(1), or a magnetic field in one direction (1) or the other (0).
We will first define the three operators of switching algebra
and then develop a number of properties of switching algebra.

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Definition of Switching Algebra (Contd
…)
Operators:
1.OR (written as +) i.e. a + b (read as a OR b) is 1 if and only if a = 1
or b = 1 or both
2.AND (written as . or simply two variables catenated) i.e. a . b or
ab (read as a AND b) is 1 if and only if a = 1 and b = 1.
3.NOT (written as ’) i.e. a’ (read as NOT a) is 1 if and only if a = 0.

The term complement is sometimes used instead of NOT. The

operation is also referred to as inversion, and the device (i.e. gate)
implementing it is called an inverter.

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 Definition of Switching Algebra (Contd...)
Truth tables for the above three operators are shown in Table 2.7.

The symbols (gates) for implementing above operations are as follows:

NOT

A gate is a basic circuit element with one output that implements one of
the basic functions such as OR, AND and NOT
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 Switching Algebra

We need an algebraic description to analyze and design systems.

We need the algebra for several reasons. Perhaps the most obvious is
that if we are presented with a network of gates, we need to obtain a
specification of the output in terms of the input.
Since each gate is defined by an algebraic expression, we most often
need to be able to manipulate that algebra.
In the design process, we often obtain an algebraic expression that
corresponds to a much more complex network of gates than is
necessary.
Algebra allows us to simplify that expression, perhaps even minimize
the amount of logic (gates) needed to implement it.

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 Properties of Switching Algebra
The properties (or theorems or postulates) of switching algebra are as follows:

Note:
Every (b) part is the dual of its corresponding (a) part.
To obtain the dual of a property, interchange OR and AND and the constants 0 and 1.
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 Proving the Above Properties

We can use truth table to prove each and every above mentioned
property of switching algebra.
For example, the truth table to prove the property 8b is a s follows:

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Example
Construct a truth table for the following function:

The truth table for the above Boolean function is as follows:

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Solution

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Algebraic Functions
Algebraic functions or algebraic expressions involve
variables (either complemented or uncomplemented),
and the operators + (OR) and . (AND).
A literal is the appearance of a variable; either in its
complemented form or uncomplemented form. For
example, a and b’ are literals.
In the algebraic expressions, each appearance of a
variable is counted. For example, the expression
ab’ + bc’d + a’d + e’ contains eight literals.

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Product Term
A product term is one or more literals connected by AND operators.
In the previous example, there are four product terms, ab’, bc’d, a’d, and e’.
Note:
A single literal is a product term. For example: e’ is a product term.

Minterm or Standard Product Term

A standard product term, also called a minterm, is a product term that

includes each variable of the problem, either complemented (primed) or
uncomplemented (unprimed). Thus, for a function of four variables, w, x, y,
and z, the terms w’xyz’ and wxyz are standard product terms, but wy’z is not
(because it does not contain the variable x)

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Sum of Products (SOP)
A sum of products expression (often abbreviated as SOP) is one or more product
terms connected by OR operators.
For example, the following are Sum of Product expressions:

• w’xyz’ + wx’y’z’ + wx’yz + wxyz (4 product terms, 16 literals)

• x + w’y + wxy’z (3 product terms, 7 literals)
• x’ + y + z (3 product terms, 3 literals)
• wy’ (1 product term, 2 literals)
• z ( 1 product term, 1 literal)

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Canonical Sum
Canonical Sum or Sum of Standard Product Terms
It is just a sum of products expression where all of the terms are standard
product terms i.e. each term contains all the variables; either complemented
(primed) or uncomplemented (unprimed).
For example, if there are four variables, w, x, y and z, then only the first of the
above expressions is the canonical sum.
Note:
In order to implement the algebraic expressions given in canonical sum, we
shall reduce them to fewest possible number of sum of product terms and
literals.

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 Simplification of Canonical Sum
Example:
• Consider the algebraic expression:
x’yz’ + x’yz + xy’z’ + xy’z + xyz (5 terms, 15 literals)
• It can be simplified as

(3 terms, 7 literals)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QcgyhkWyP2Q

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Some more properties of
switching algebra

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Sum Term
A sum term is one or more literals connected by OR operators.
For example, a + b’ + c is a sum term.
Note:
A single literal e.g. b’ may be considered as a sum term.
Maxterm or Standard Sum Term

A standard sum term, also called a maxterm, is a sum term that includes
each variable of the problem, either complemented or
uncomplemented. Thus, for a function of four variables, w, x, y, and z,
the terms w’+ x’+ y + z’ and w+ x + y + z are standard sum terms, but
w’+ y’+ z is not (because it does not contain the variable x)

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Product of Sum (POS)
A product of sum expression (often abbreviated as POS) is one or more
sum terms connected by AND operators.

For example, the following are Product of Sum expressions:

• (w’ + x)(w + y) (2 sum terms, 4 literals)

• w.(x + y) (2 sum terms, 3 literals)
• w (1 sum term, 1 literal)
• (w + x’) (1 sum term, 2 literals)
• (w + x’ + y’ + z’)(w’+ x + y + z’) ( 2 sum terms, 8 literals)

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Canonical Product
Canonical Product or Product of Standard Sum Terms
It is just a product of sum expression where all of the terms are
standard sum terms i.e. each term contains all the variables;
either complemented or uncomplemented.
For example, if there are four variables, w, x, y and z, then only
the last of the above expressions is the canonical product.
Note:
In order to implement the algebraic expressions given in
canonical product, we shall reduce them to fewest possible
number of product of sum terms and literals.

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Canonical Forms
An expression may be in sum of products form, product of
sums form, both, or neither. Examples are:

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 Simplification of Canonical Product
Example:
The simplification of a product of sum expression
(w’ + x’ + y + z’)(w’ + x’ + y + z)(w + x’ + y + z’) is as follows:
(w’ + x’ + y + z’)(w’ + x’ + y + z)(w + x’ + y + z’)
= ((w’ + x’ + y) + z’.z) (w + x’ + y + z’) Using P6b
= ((w’ + x’ + y) + 0) (w + x’ + y + z’) Using P5b
= (w’ + x’ + y)(w + x’ + y + z’) Using P3a
= x’ + y + (w’.(w + z’)) Using P8b (Distributive Law)
= x’ + y + (w’.w + w’.z’) Using P8a
= x’ + y + (0 + w’.z’) Using P5b
= x’ + y + (w’.z’) Using P3a
= (x’ + y + w’)(x’ + y + z’) Using P8b
= (w’ + x’ + y)(x’ + y + z’) Using P2a

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