Communities and Ecosystems

Ecology and Conservation

 Essential Idea
Changes in community structure affect and are
affected by organisms.

Nature of Science
Use models as representations of the real world
—pyramids of energy model the energy flow
through ecosystems.
 IB Understandings
►Most species occupy different trophic levels in multiple
food chains.
►A food web shows all the possible food chains in a
community.
►The percentage of ingested energy converted to biomass is
dependent on the respiration rate.
 IB Understandings
►The type of stable ecosystem that will emerge in an area is
predictable based on climate.
►In closed ecosystems energy but not matter is exchanged
with the surroundings.
►Disturbance influences the structure and rate of change
within ecosystems.
 IB Applications
►Conversion ratio in sustainable food production
practices.
►Application: Consideration of one example of how
humans interfere with nutrient cycling.
 IB Skills
►Comparison of pyramids of energy from different
ecosystems.
►Analysis of a climograph showing the relationship
between temperature, rainfall and the type of
ecosystem.
►Skill: Construction of Gersmehl diagrams to show the
inter-relationships between nutrient stores and flows
between taiga, desert and tropical rainforest.
 IB Skills
►Skill: Analysis of data showing primary succession.
►Skill: Investigation into the effect of an environmental
disturbance on an ecosystem.
Ecosystems are biological communities of interacting
organisms and their physical environment.

❓ Identify some of the

interactions that
may occur in this
ecosystem.

Don’t forget the

interactions between
the organisms and the
abiotic environment
Biosphere
 Biosphere

The biosphere is the zone of air,

land and water where
organisms exist.

It is commonly known as the

global sum of all ecosystems
and consists of several layers
including the atmosphere, the
lithosphere and the hydrosphere.
Earth – A Closed Ecosystem

In closed ecosystems energy

but not matter is exchanged
with the surroundings.

Mesocosms are clearly closed

ecosystems as no material is
added to the ecosystem.

❓ Explain why the Earth may

be considered a closed
ecological system.
Ecological Succession

1. Define ecological
succession.

2. Compare and
contrast primary and
secondary
succession.
Succession is the process of change in a particular
area over a period of time caused by complex
interactions between organisms and the environment

1. Define pioneer species.

2. Explain how pioneer species change the environment.
Succession is the process of change in a particular
area over a period of time caused by complex
interactions between organisms and the environment
Some characteristic changes occur during succession:
► Species diversity increases, but some species replace earlier species
► Producers are more productive, increasing plant density
► Organic matter in the soil increases as more organisms grow, die and are
decomposed
► Water-holding capacity of the soil increases due to organic matter
► Soil depth increases
► Soil erosion is reduced due to roots
► Nutrients are recycled
Primary Succession begins when a area of ground or
bare rock with no existing soil is colonised for the
first time

Primary
succession occurs
after volcanic
eruptions or the
retreat of
glaciers.
Secondary succession is a process started by a
disturbance (e.g. forest fire, harvesting, hurricane,
etc.) that reduces an already established ecosystem
(e.g. a forest) to a smaller community of species
Secondary succession
is caused by a
disturbance to an
Disturbanc
ecosystem. e

Disturbances influence
the structure and rate
of change in an
ecosystem.
Ecological Succession at Glacier Bay National Park

Disturbances influence
the structure and rate of
change within
ecosystems.
As the glaciers retreat,
bare land is exposed.
Primary succession can
begin.
Analyzing Succession - Glacier Bay National Park

❓ Describe
the changes
to this
ecosystem
over time.
Analysing Succession - Glacier Bay National Park
Analysing Succession - Glacier Bay National Park
Pioneer species, such as lichens and mosses, are the first to colonize the
land as the glacier retreats.
As the first plants die, the soil quality improves in depth and nitrogen
content.
The pioneer species are replaced by successive communities, where more
leaf litter adds to the quality and depth of the soil.
A woodland of alder trees are present after 60 years.
However the alder trees are replaced by a climax community which
includes spruce and hemlock woodlands.
The climax community reduces the pH of the soil, so it becomes acidic.
 Climax Community

A climax community is an ecological community in which

populations of organisms remain stable and exist in balance
with each other and their environment.

A climax community is the final stage of succession,

remaining relatively unchanged until destroyed by an event
such as fire or human interference.

An extensive and identifiable climax community is a biome.

 Whittaker’s Climograph

Whittaker’s Climograph predicts

the climax community (biome)
found according to mean annual
temperatures and mean annual
precipitation.

❓ Identify the biome that

would be expected in a
location with mean annual
temperature of 27oC and a
mean annual precipitation
of 375ml.
 Whittaker’s Climograph

Whittaker’s Climograph predicts

the climax community (biome)
found according to mean annual
temperatures and mean annual Tropical
precipitation. Rainforest

❓ Identify the biome that

would be expected in a
location with mean annual
temperature of 27oC and a
mean annual precipitation
of 375ml.
Biomes
Biomes are large
naturally occurring
climax communities of
plants and animals
occupying a major
habitat.

You need to be familiar

with the taiga, desert
and tropical rainforest
biomes.
 Productivity in Ecosystems

Productivity refers to the rate of generation of biomass in an ecosystem.

Biomass is the dry mass (mass which does not include water) of living
organisms in a ecosystem.
In ecosystems, productivity can be classified as:
► Primary production - Producers synthesizing organic compounds
(usually by photosynthesis) to increase their biomass.
► Secondary production - Heterotrophs increasing biomass by using
organic matter obtained through feeding.
 Energy Conversion Rates
Gross production of energy is the total amount of energy in food synthesized by
producers, or the amount of energy in food eaten by an animal.
Net production of energy is the amount of energy in food converted to biomass in an
organism. It is always less than gross production.
Some food is used in cell respiration and the energy from it is lost (as heat) from the
organism and the ecosystem.
Net Production of Energy =

Gross Production of Energy - Loss of Energy by Respiration

►The percentage of ingested energy (food) converted to biomass is
dependent on the respiration rate of organisms.
 Productivity and Ecosystems

The productivity of
ecosystems varies
and depends on:
► Primary
productivity of
plants.
► Feed conversion
rates of
consumers.
 Energy Conversion Rates

❓ Calculate the net production of energy in a plant which has a gross energy
production of 500 J, but loses 100 J of energy through respiration

Net Production of Energy = Gross Production of Energy - loss of Energy by

Respiration
Gross energy production = 500 J
Energy lost by respiration = 100 J
Net Energy Production = 500 J - 100 J
Net Energy Production = 400 J
 Energy Conversion Rates
A plant produces food containing 500 J of energy, but only 100 J is converted to
biomass.
❓ Calculate the percentage of energy lost by the plant through respiration.

Gross productivity = 500 J Net Productivity = 100 J

Gross Productivity - Net Productivity = 500 J - 400 J = 400 J

% Energy lost = (400J ÷ 500J) x 100

% Energy lost = 80% Energy lost
 Energy Conversion Rates
A person consumes 2000 J of energy in food, but only 200 J is converted to biomass.
❓ Calculate the percentage of energy lost by the person through respiration.

Gross productivity = 2000 J Net Productivity = 200 J

Gross Productivity - Net Productivity = 2000J - 200 J = 1800 J

% Energy lost = (1800 J ÷ 2000 J) x 100

% Energy lost = 90% Energy lost
 Feed Conversion Ratios
The feed conversion ratio of animals is the efficiency with which an
animal converts food to biomass/meat.
The food conversion ratio is calculated using the
formula:

The lower the food

conversion ratio, the more
efficient the method of food
production
 Sustainable Food Production
Sustainable food production
requires the production of
food with a low food
conversion ratio.

Read the linked article

❓ Explain why ectotherms,

like insects, have a much
lower food conversion
ratio than endotherms,
like cows.
Food Chains and Food Webs

❓ State the quantity of

energy lost between
trophic levels.

Pyramids of energy
should be drawn to
scale and should be
stepped, not
triangular.
A food web shows all the possible food chains in a
community.

►Most species occupy

different trophic
levels in multiple
food chains.
►A food web shows all
the possible food
chains in a
community.
 Trophic Levels and Pyramids of Energy
A trophic level is the
position that an organism
occupies within a food
Tertiary Consumer 1 kJ m2 yr-1
chain.
The energy content of
Secondary Consumer 10 kJ m2 yr-1 biomass at each trophic
level can be represented
by a pyramid of energy.
Primary Consumer 100 kJ m2 yr-1
The unit for energy of
biomass in a pyramid of
Producers 1000 kJ m2 yr
energy is J m2 Yr-1.
 Pyramids of Energy and Ecosystem Productivity

High primary productivity of the producers means more energy is

available to the subsequent trophic levels.
The higher the primary productivity the more trophic levels can
be present in a pyramid of energy.
Ecosystems with warm climates and high levels of precipitation
will have optimum conditions for photosynthesis, resulting in
very high productivity levels, and a greater number of trophic
levels than ecosystems with low precipitation and low
temperatures.
Gersmehl Diagrams
Gersmehl diagrams represent nutrient storage
and flow within ecosystems
► Three nutrient sinks are represented by
circles.
► Surface area of a circle represents the relative
quantity of nutrients in the respective sink.
► Arrows represent the transfer of nutrients
between the sinks and the environment.
► The thicker the arrow, the more nutrients are
transferred.
Gersmehl Diagrams
The nutrient sinks are:
► Litter is dead plant material (such as leaves,
bark, needles, twigs, etc) that have fallen to
the ground.
► Biomass is the total quantity or mass of
organisms in a given area.
► Soil is the layer of earth in which plants
grow, a black or dark brown material
typically consisting of a mixture of organic
remains, clay, and rock particles.
Gersmehl Diagrams
The nutrient transfers include:
► Littering - plants and animals die.
► Decomposition - dead organisms are
decomposed.
► Plant uptake - Plants absorb nutrients from the
soil.
► Rainfall - rain contains dissolved minerals.
► Surface runoff - dissolved nutrients are lost from
the litter.
► Leaching - nutrients are lost from the soil.
► Weathering - mineral nutrients are added to the
soil.
Taiga Biomes

❓ Outline the
characteristics of the
taiga biomes.

Refer to the following:

► Location
► Climate
► Dominant plants
► Net productivity of
the plants
Taiga Biomes
 Taiga Biomes
Taiga are the swampy coniferous forests of high northern
latitudes, especially those between the tundra and
steppes of Siberia.
➢ Cold most of the year
➢ Moderate precipitation, but usually wet due to
limited evaporation
➢ It is a land dominated by conifers.
➢ Before the long, snowy winter sets in, many of the
mammals hibernate, and many of the birds migrate
south.
➢ Although the long days of summer permit plants to
grow luxuriantly, overall net productivity is low.
 Gersmehl Diagram for the Taiga
► Most nutrients are
Biomass
stored in the litter.
Rainfall g ► Slow rate of
rin decomposition due to
e

Pl
i tt
cold temperatures.

an
L

tU
► Low rainfall results in

pt
ak
low levels of nutrient

e
Decompositio transfer by rain and
ce
Litter Soil leaching.
f a n
r
Su noff n g ► Surface runoff can be
Ru hi
ac

We
Le high as snow melts

ath
erin
g
 Taiga Pyramid of Energy

The taiga ecosystem has low

temperatures for most of the
year. Secondary Consumer
The availability of liquid water is
limited due to low precipitation
and freezing temperatures. Primary Consumer
The net productivity of the taiga Producers
is low, resulting in a limited
number of trophic levels.
Desert Biomes

❓ Outline the
characteristics of the
desert biomes.

Refer to the following:

► Location
► Climate
► Dominant plants
► Net productivity of
the plants
Desert Biomes
 Desert Biomes
Deserts are barren areas where little precipitation
occurs and consequently living conditions are hostile
for plant and animal life.
➢ Annual rainfall in the desert is less than 250 mm.
➢ Plants are xerophytes, which are adapted to
survive in environments with little water.
➢ Many of the animals in the desert are adapted for
burrowing to escape the scorching heat of the
desert sun.
➢ The net productivity of desert plants is very low.
 Gersmehl Diagram for the Desert
► Most nutrients are stored in
the soil, as plants grow
slowly.
Biomass
g ► Slow rate of transfer
rin
between nutrients.
Rain

Pl take
te

Up
t

an
L i

t
► Transfer between biomass
fall

and litter is the fastest.

► Low rainfall means there is
Litter Decompositio little surface runoff.
f a ce n Soil
r
Su noff ► Leaching and weathering is
Ru
negligible.
 Desert Pyramid of Energy

The desert ecosystem has very

low levels of precipitation. Secondary Consumer
The net productivity of deserts
is very low, usually resulting in
Primary Consumer
a maximum of three trophic
levels.
Producers
Tropical Rainforest Biomes

❓ Outline the
characteristics of the
tropical rainforest
biomes.

Refer to the following:

► Location
► Climate
► Dominant plants
► Net productivity of
the plants
Tropical Rainforest Biomes
 Tropical Rainforest Biomes
Tropical rainforests are hot, moist biomes found
near Earth's equator.
➢ All months have an average rainfall of at least
60 mm.
➢ The forests are very biodiverse
➢ The forests are extremely productive, but the
soil is not very fertile as most of the nutrients
are in the plants.
➢ The high rainfall leaches soil minerals below the
reach of plant roots.
➢ The warmth and moisture cause rapid decay so
little humus is added to the soil.
 Gersmehl Diagram for the Tropical Rainforest

► Most nutrients are

Biomass stored in the plants as
Ra

biomass
i nf

Pl
g

an
a ll

rin ► Warm and wet

t
e
tt

Up
Li condition promotes

ta
rapid transfer of

ke
Decompositio nutrients
f a ce Litter n Soil
r
Su noff
Ru hi n g
ac
Le

We
at
h
er
i ng
 Tropical Rainforest Pyramid of Energy

Quaternary Consumer
Tropical rainforests have high
Tertiary
temperatures and high levels
Consumer
of precipitation.
Secondary Consumer
The primary productivity level
is very high, resulting in more
trophic levels. Primary Consumer

Producers
 ToK

Do the entities in scientists’ models, for example trophic

levels or Gersmehl diagrams, actually exist, or are they
primarily useful inventions for predicting and explaining
the natural world?
Environmental Disturbances - Deforestation

Read the linked article.

❓ Outline the effect of

deforestation of tropical
rainforests on:

► Soil erosion
► Nutrient cycling
► Biodiversity
Environmental Disturbances - Deforestation
 Environmental Disturbances - Deforestation
Soil erosion - The roots of the trees hold the soil together. When the trees
are removed from the ecosystem, the soil is washed away due to rainfall.

Nutrient Cycling - Most of the nutrients are within the plants of the
rainforests. If the plants are removed, so are most of the nutrients.
The ecosystem loses most of the available nutrients.

Biodiversity - Tropical rainforests are very biodiverse. Removing the

trees reduces the number of niches available to organisms. The loss
of soil and nutrients also negatively impacts biodiversity.
Review
 Essential Idea
Changes in community structure affect and are
affected by organisms.

Nature of Science
Use models as representations of the real world
—pyramids of energy model the energy flow
through ecosystems.
 IB Understandings
►Most species occupy different trophic levels in multiple
food chains.
►A food web shows all the possible food chains in a
community.
►The percentage of ingested energy converted to biomass is
dependent on the respiration rate.
 IB Understandings
►The type of stable ecosystem that will emerge in an area is
predictable based on climate.
►In closed ecosystems energy but not matter is exchanged
with the surroundings.
►Disturbance influences the structure and rate of change
within ecosystems.
 IB Applications
►Conversion ratio in sustainable food production
practices.
►Application: Consideration of one example of how
humans interfere with nutrient cycling.
 IB Skills
►Comparison of pyramids of energy from different
ecosystems.
►Analysis of a climograph showing the relationship
between temperature, rainfall and the type of
ecosystem.
►Skill: Construction of Gersmehl diagrams to show the
inter-relationships between nutrient stores and flows
between taiga, desert and tropical rainforest.
 IB Skills
►Skill: Analysis of data showing primary succession.
►Skill: Investigation into the effect of an environmental
disturbance on an ecosystem.