Chapter 38A - Relativity

A PowerPoint Presentation by
Paul E. Tippens, Professor of Physics
Southern Polytechnic State University

© 2007
Objectives: After completing this
module, you should be able to:
• State and discuss Einstein’s two
postulates regarding special relativity.
• Demonstrate your understanding of time
dilation and apply it to physical
problems.
• Demonstrate and apply equations for
relativistic length, momentum, mass,
and energy.
 Special Relativity
Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity, published
in 1905, was based on two postulates:

I. The laws of physics are the same for all

frames of reference moving at a constant
velocity with respect to each other.

II. The free space velocity of light c is

constant for all observers, independent of
their state of motion. (c = 3 x 108 m/s)
 Rest and Motion
What do we mean when we say that an object
is at rest . . . or in motion? Is anything at rest?

We sometimes say that

man, computer, phone,
and desk are at rest.

We forget that the Earth

is also in motion.

What we really mean is that all are moving with

the same velocity. We can only detect motion in
reference to something else.
No Preferred Frame of Reference
What is the velocity of 25 m/s East
the bicyclist? 10 m/s
West
We cannot say without
a frame of reference. Earth

Assume bike moves at 25 m/s,W relative to Earth

and that platform moves 10 m/s, E relative to Earth.

What is the velocity of the bike relative to platform?

Assume that the platform is the reference, then
look at relative motion of Earth and bike.
 Reference for Motion (Cont.)
To find the velocity of the bike relative to
platform, we must imagine that we are sitting
on the platform at rest (0 m/s) relative to it.
We would see the Earth moving westward at
10 m/s and the bike moving west at 35 m/s.

Earth as Reference Platform as Reference

25 m/s East 35 m/s
East
West 10 m/s West 0 m/s

Earth 0 m/s 10 m/s

 Frame of Earth as Reference
Reference 25 m/s East
West 10 m/s
Consider the velocities
for three different
frames of reference. Earth 0

Platform as Reference Bicycle as Reference

35 m/s 0 m/s East
East
West 0 m/s West 35 m/s

10 m/s 25 m/s
 Constant Velocity of Light
Platform v = 30 m/s to right relative to ground.
c c c c

10 m/s 10 m/s 20 m/s 40 m/s

Velocities observed Velocities observed

inside car from outside car

The light from two flashlights and the two

balls travel in opposite directions. The
observed velocities of the ball differ, but the
speed of light is independent of direction.
 Velocity of Light (Cont.)
Platform moves 30 m/s to right relative to boy.
c c 30 Each observer sees
m/s c = 3 x 108 m/s
10 m/s 10 m/s

Outside observer sees very

different velocities for balls.

The velocity of light is unaffected by relative

motion and is exactly equal to:
c = 2.99792458 x 108 m/s
 Simultaneous Events
The judgment of simultaneous events is also a
matter of relativity. Consider observer OT sitting on
top of moving train while observer OE is on ground.

Not simultaneous At t = 0, lightning

strikes train and
OT
A B ground at A and B.
AT BT
Observer OE sees
AE OE BE lightning events AE &
Simultaneous
BE as simultaneous.
Observer OT says event BT occurs before event AT
due to motion of train. Each observer is correct!
 Time Measurements
Since our measurement
of time involves judg-
ments about simul-
taneous events, we can
see that time may also
be affected by relative
motion of observers.

In fact, Einstein's theory shows that observers

in relative motion will judge times differently -
furthermore, each is correct.
 Relative Time
Consider cart moving with velocity v under a
mirrored ceiling. A light pulse travels to ceiling and
back in time to for rider and in time t for watcher.

2d 2R
d c c
t R d
R
t0
x
to t
Light path Light path ct vt
R ; x
for rider for watcher 2 2
 Relative Time (Cont.)
c
d 2d
c 2t R
t0 d
t v 2t

to 2 2
 c   v  2
Light path  
    d
for rider  2t   2t 

Substitution of: 2  t2 2
 c t   v   ct0 
0
ct0     2  2 
d  2t   21t v c 2 
2
 Time Dilation Equation
Einstein’s Time t  t 0
dilation Equation: 1  v2 c2

t = Relative time (Time measured in frame

moving relative to actual event).
to= Proper time (Time measured in the
same frame as the event itself).
v = Relative velocity of two frames.
c = Free space velocity of light (c = 3 x 108 m/s).
 Proper Time
The key to applying the time dilation equation is
to distinguish clearly between proper time to
and relative time t. Look at our example:

Event Relative
d
Frame Frame

to t
Proper Relative t > to
Time Time
 Example 1: Ship A passes ship B with a
relative velocity of 0.8c (eighty percent of the
velocity of light). A woman aboard Ship B
takes 4 s to walk the length of her ship. What
time is recorded by the man in Ship A?
Proper time to = 4 s A
Find relative time t

t 0 B
t  v = 0.8c
2 2
1 v c

4.00 s 4.00 s
t   t = 6.67 s
2
1- (0.8c) / c 2
1- 0.64
 The Twin Paradox
Two twins are
on Earth. One
leaves and
travels for 10
years at 0.9c.
Traveling twin
When traveler ages more!
returns, he is 23
years older due Paradox: Since motion is
to time dilation! relative, isn’t it just as true that
t0
the man who stayed on earth
t 
1  v2 c2 should be 23 years older?
 The Twin Paradox Explained
The traveling twin’s
motion was not
uniform. Acceleration
and forces were
needed to go to and
Traveling twin
return from space.
ages more!

The traveler This is NOT science fiction.

ages more and Atomic clocks placed aboard
not the one who aircraft sent around Earth and
stayed home. back have verified the time
dilation.
 Length Contraction
Since time is affected by
0.9c
relative motion, length
Lo
will also be different:

2 2
L  L0 1  v c L
Lo is proper length
L is relative length

Moving objects are foreshortened due to relativity.

 Example 2: A meter stick moves at 0.9c
relative to an observer. What is the relative
length as seen by the observer?

2 2 Lo 1 m
L  L0 1  v c

L  (1 m) 1  (0.9c) 2 / c 2 0.9c
L=?
L  (1 m) 1  0.81  0.436 m

Length recorded by observer: L = 43.6 cm

If the ground observer held a meter stick, the

same contraction would be seen from the ship.
 Foreshortening of Objects
Note that it is the length in the direction of
relative motion that contracts and not the
dimensions perpendicular to the motion.
Assume each holds a
Wo
meter stick, in example.
If meter stick is 2 cm
wide, each will say the 0.9c
other is only 0.87 cm 1 m=1 m W<Wo
wide, but they will
agree on the length.
 Relativistic Momentum
The basic conservation laws for momentum and
energy can not be violated due to relativity.
Newton’s equation for momentum (mv) must be
changed as follows to account for relativity:

Relativistic m0 v
p
momentum: 1  v2 c2

mo is the proper mass, often called the rest

mass. Note that for large values of v, this
equation reduces to Newton’s equation.
 Relativistic Mass
If momentum is to be conserved, the relativistic mass
m must be consistent with the following equation:

Relativistic m0
m
mass: 1  v2 c2

Note that as an object is accelerated by a

resultant force, its mass increases, which
requires even more force. This means that:

The speed of light is an ultimate speed!

Example 3: The rest mass of an electron is
9.1 x 10-31 kg. What is the relativistic mass if
its velocity is 0.8c ?

m0 - 0.8c
m
2
1 v c 2 mo = 9.1 x 10-31 kg

-31 -31
9.1 x 10 kg 9.1 x 10 kg
m 
1  (0.6c) 2 c 2 0.36

The mass has

m = 15.2 x 10 -31
kg
increased by 67% !
 Mass and Energy
Prior to the theory of relativity, scientists
considered mass and energy as separate
quantities, each of which must be conserved.

Now mass and energy must

be considered as the same
quantity. We may express
the mass of a baseball in
joules or its energy in
kilograms! The motion adds
to the mass-energy.
 Total Relativistic Energy
The general formula for the relativistic total
energy involves the rest mass mo and the
relativistic momentum p = mv.
2 2 2
Total Energy, E E  (m0 c )  p c

For a particle with zero E = moc2

momentum p = 0:

For an EM wave, m0 = 0,
E = pc
and E simplifies to:
 Mass and Energy (Cont.)
The conversion factor between E = m c2
o o
mass m and energy E is:

The zero subscript refers to proper or rest values.

A 1-kg block on a table has an energy 1 kg
Eo and mass mo relative to table:

Eo = (1 kg)(3 x 108 m/s)2 Eo = 9 x 1016 J

If the 1-kg block is in relative motion, its kinetic

energy adds to the total energy.
 Total Energy
According to Einstein's theory, the total energy
E of a particle of is given by:
Total Energy: E = mc2 (moc2 + K)

Total energy includes rest energy and energy

of motion. If we are interested in just the
energy of motion, we must subtract moc2.
Kinetic Energy: K = mc2 – moc2

Kinetic Energy: K = (m – mo)c2

 Example 4: What is the kinetic energy of a
proton (mo = 1.67 x 10-27 kg) traveling at 0.8c?

m0 + 0.7c
m
2 2
1 v c mo = 1.67 x 10-27 kg

1.67 x 10-27 kg 1.67 x 10-27 kg

m  ; m = 2.34 x 10 -27
kg
2
1  (0.7c) c 2
0.51

K = (m – mo)c2 = (2.34 x 10-27 kg – 1.67 x 10-17 kg)c2

Relativistic Kinetic Energy K = 6.02 x 10-11 J

 Summary
Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity, published
in 1905, was based on two postulates:

I. The laws of physics are the same for all

frames of reference moving at a constant
velocity with respect to each other.

II. The free space velocity of light c is

constant for all observers, independent of
their state of motion. (c = 3 x 108 m/s)
 Summary (Cont.)
t 0
Relativistic t 
time: 1  v2 c2

Relativistic 2 2
length:
L  L0 1  v c

Relativistic m0
m
mass: 2
1 v c 2
 Summary(Cont.)

Relativistic m0 v
p
momentum: 2
1 v c 2

Total energy: E = mc2

Kinetic energy: K = (m – mo)c2

CONCLUSION: Chapter 38A
Relativity