NETWORK MODEL

The network model is a combination of hardware and software that sends

the data to one location to another location.
The hardware consists of the physical equipment that carries the signals
from one point to another point.
The software consists of the instruction sets that make possible the
services that we expect from a network.
LAYERED TASKS
let us consider two friends who communicate through postal mail. The
process of sending a letter to a friend would be complex if there were no
services available from the post office.
Tasks involved in sending a letter
At the sender site:-
The activities that take place at the sender site
1.Higher layer : the sender write the letter, inserts the letter in an envelope, write
the sender and the receiver address and drops the letter in an envelope.
2.Middle layer: the letter is picked up by a letter carrier and delivered to the post
office.
3.Lower layer: the letter is sorted at the post office, a carrier transports the letter.

On the way the parcel is carried from the source to the destination.

At the receiver site:

Lower layer: the carrier transports the letter to the post office.
Middle layer: the letter is sorted and delivered to the receiver mailbox.
Higher layer: the receiver picks up the letter, opens the envelope and reads it.
Hierarchy
Three different activities are done at the sender site and the receiver site and the
transmission of letter is done must be hierarchy, then only the receiver receives the
letter.

Services
Each layer uses the services of the layer immediately below it.
The sender at the higher layer uses the services of the middle layer.
The middle layer uses the services of the lower layer.
The lower layer uses the services of the carrier.
 THE OSI MODEL
In 1974, the International standard organization (ISO) is a multinational body
dedicated to world wide agreement on international standards.

An ISO standard covers all aspects of network communication is the open system
interconnection (OSI) model.

ISO is an organization , OSI is the model.

The OSI model is an layered framework for the design of network systems that
allows for communication across all types of computer systems.

It consists of seven separate layers, each layer defines the process of moving
information across a network.
THE OSI MODEL
An exchange using the OSI model
LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

PHYSICAL LAYER
The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one
hop (node) to the next.
The physical layer is concerned with the following
Physical characteristics of interfaces and media:-
The physical layer defines the characteristics of interfaces between the devices
and the transmission medium.
It also defines which transmission medium is used for the transmission of the
data i.e., coaxial cable or fiber optic etc.,
Representation of bits:-
The physical layer consists of data in 0s and 1s it is called a stream of data.
0s and 1s are converted into the electrical signal i.e., encoding of the 0s and 1s
into the signals.
Data rate:-
The transmission rate i.e., data rate of the each bit must be defined in this layer.
The duration of the bit and how long it lasts.
 Physical layer

2.10
Synchronization of bits:-
The sender and receiver side must be synchronized at the each level.
i.e., the clocks must be synchronized.
Line configuration:-
It is concerned with the connection of devices to the media.
In point-to-point two devices are connected through dedicated link and multipoint
configuration a link is shared among several devices.
Physical topology:-
How devices are connected in the network using the mesh, star, bus, ring or hybrid
topologies.
Transmission mode:-
It also defines the mode of the transmission i.e., in which direction.
 DATA LINK LAYER

The data link layer transform the physical layer, and sends the frames error
free to the upper layer.
The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one node to another
node.
The responsibilities of the data link layer are as follows:
Framing:-
The data link layer divides the stream of bits are divided into small data units
called frames.
Physical addressing:-
If frames are distributed to different systems on the network, the data link layer
adds a header to the frame to define the sender or the receiver.
Flow control:-
If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate at
which data are produced in the sender. Then it controls the flow of data at the
receiver.

Error control:-
The data link layer controls all the errors and it detect and retransmit damaged or
lost frames.
It also responsible to recognize duplicate frames.

Accessing:-
When two or more devices are connected to the same link, by making intermediate
system we have an node to node delivery.