Psychology

Sixth Edition, Global Edition

Chapter 1
The Science of Psychology
Learning Objectives (1 of 3)

1.1 Describe the contributions of some of the early pioneers in psychology.

1.2 Summarize the basic ideas and the important people behind the early approaches
known as Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism.
1.3 Summarize the basic ideas behind the seven modern perspectives in psychology.
1.4 Differentiate between the various types of professionals within the field of
psychology.
Learning Objectives (2 of 3)

1.5 Recall the basic criteria for critical thinking that people can use in their everyday
lives.
1.6 Recall the five steps of the scientific approach.
1.7 Compare and contrast some of the methods used to describe behavior.
1.8 Explain how researchers use the correlational technique to study relationships
between two or more variables.
1.9 Identify the steps involved in designing an experiment.
Learning Objectives (3 of 3)

1.10 Recall two common sources of problems in an experiment and some ways to
control for these effects.
1.11 Identify some of the common ethical guidelines for doing research with people.
1.12 Explain why psychologists sometimes use animals in their research.
1.13 Identify strategies for critically evaluating news and other information shared on
social media.
1.1–1.2 The History of Psychology

– Psychology: the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

– Behavior: outward or overt actions and reactions
– Mental processes: internal, covert activity of our minds
Survey: What Do You Know About Psychology?
Figure 1.1: Timeline of the History of Psychology
1.1 In the Beginning: Wundt, Titchener, and James
(1 of 3)

Learning Objective 1.1 Describe the contributions of some of the early pioneers in psychology.

• Wilhelm Wundt:
– Laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, 1879
– Believed consciousness could be broken down into
thoughts, experiences, emotions, and other basic
elements
– Developed objective introspection: the process of
objectively examining and measuring one’s own
thoughts and mental activities
– Known as the father of psychology
1.1 In the Beginning: Wundt, Titchener, and James (2 of
3)

– Titchener and Structuralism

– Edward Titchener
– Wundt’s student; brought structuralism to America
– Structuralism focused on structure of the mind; experiences could be broken down into
emotions and sensations
– Margaret Washburn
– Titchener’s student; first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology
– Published The Animal Mind (1908)
– Structuralism died out in the early 1900s
1.1 In the Beginning: Wundt, Titchener, and James (3 of
3)

– William James and Functionalism

– How the mind allows people to adapt, live, work, and play
– Wrote Principles of Psychology
– Mary Whiton Calkins
– Denied Ph.D. because she was a woman
– Earliest research done for human memory and psychology of the self
– Minorities and early psychology
– Influenced modern fields of educational and industrial/organizational psychology
Other Early Contributors
• Many of psychology’s early pioneers were ethnic minorities
‒ African American
 Francis Cecil Sumner - first African American to earn a Ph.D. in
psychology
 Inez Beverly Prosser – first African American female to earn a
Ph.D. in psychology
 Kenneth and Mamie Clark – looked at effects of school
segregation on African American children
‒ Hispanic-Latino
 George (Jorge) Sanchez – studied cultural bias in intelligence
tests
 Carlos Albizu Miranda – one of the first Hispanics to earn a
Ph.D. in clinical psychology
1.2 Three Influential Approaches: Gestalt,
Psychoanalysis, and Behaviorism (1 of 5)
Learning Objective 1.2 Summarize the basic ideas and the important people behind the early approaches known as Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and
behaviorism.

• Gestalt
– An organized whole
– Started with Wertheimer, who studied sensation and
perception
– Gestalt ideas now part of study of cognitive
psychology

• Cognitive psychology: field focusing not only on

perception but also on learning, memory, thought
processes, and problem solving
Figure 1.2: A Gestalt Perception

The eye tends to “fill in” the blanks here and sees both of these figures as circles rather than as a series of dots or a broken line.
1.2 Three Influential Approaches: Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, and
Behaviorism (2 of 5)

– Psychoanalysis: theory and therapy based on the work of Sigmund Freud

– modern psychotherapy based on psychoanalysis
– Freud’s patients suffered from nervous disorders with no apparent physical cause
– Proposed concept of unconscious (unaware) mind into which we push—or
repress—our threatening urges and desires
– Believed repressed urges created nervous disorders
– Stressed the importance of early childhood experiences
1.2 Three Influential Approaches: Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, and
Behaviorism (3 of 5)

– Behaviorism
– Focuses on observable behavior only
– Must be directly seen and measured
– Proposed by John B. Watson
– Based on Pavlov’s work, who demonstrated that a reflex
could be conditioned or learned
– Watson believed phobias were learned
– Case of “Little Albert”: baby taught to fear a white rat
– Mary Cover Jones: Early pioneer in behavior therapy
1.2 Three Influential Approaches: Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, and
Behaviorism (4 of 5)

American psychologist John Watson

is known as the father of behaviorism.
Behaviorism focuses only on
observable behavior.

Source: George Rinhart/Corbis/Getty

Images
1.2 Three Influential Approaches: Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, and
Behaviorism (5 of 5)

Mary Cover Jones, one of the early

pioneers of behavior therapy, earned her
master’s degree under the supervision of
John Watson. Her long and distinguished
career also included the publication in 1952
of the first educational television course in
child development (Rutherford, 2000).

Source: G. Paul Bishop

Concept Map: The History of Psychology?
1.3–1.4 The Field of Psychology Today

– No single perspective to explain all human behavior and mental processes.

– Seven Modern Perspectives
– Psychodynamic Perspective
– Behavioral Perspective
– Humanistic Perspective
– Cognitive Perspective
– Sociocultural Perspective
– Biopsychological Perspective
– Evolutionary Perspective
1.3 Modern Perspectives (1 of 8)
Learning Objective 1.3 Summarize the basic ideas behind the seven modern perspectives in psychology.

• Psychodynamic Perspective
–Modern version of psychoanalysis
–More focused on development of a sense of
self and discovery of motivations behind a
person’s behavior other than sexual
motivations
–Link between neurobiology and
psychodynamic concepts should be explored
further
1.3 Modern Perspectives (2 of 8)

– Behavioral Perspective
– B.F. Skinner developed theory of operant conditioning
– Explains how voluntary behavior is learned
– Introduces concept of reinforcement
– Behaviorism became a major force in the twentieth century
1.3 Modern Perspectives (3 of 8)

Behaviorist B. F. Skinner puts a rat

through its paces. What challenges might
arise from applying information gained
from studies with animals to human
behavior?

Source: Nina Leen/The LIFE Picture

Collection/Getty Images
1.3 Modern Perspectives (4 of 8)
– Humanistic Perspective
– “Third force” in psychology; reaction to both psychoanalytic theory and
behaviorism.
– People have free will: the freedom to choose their own destiny
– Self-actualization: achieving one’s full potential or actual self
– Early founders:
– Abraham Maslow
– Carl Rogers
1.3 Modern Perspectives (5 of 8)
– Cognitive Perspective
– Focuses on memory, intelligence, perception, thought processes, problem solving,
language, and learning
– On example is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
– Includes cognitive neuroscience: study of the physical changes in the brain and
nervous system during thinking.
1.3 Modern Perspectives (6 of 8)
– Sociocultural Perspective
– Focuses on the relationship between social behavior and culture, combining two
areas of study:
– Social Psychology: study of groups, social roles, and rules of social actions and
relationships
– Cultural Psychology: study of cultural norms, values, and expectations
– Includes cross-cultural research
1.3 Modern Perspectives (7 of 8)

– Biopsychological Perspective
– Attributes human and animal behavior to biological events occurring in the body,
such as genetic influences, hormones, and activity of nervous system
– Evolutionary Perspective
– Focuses on the biological bases of universal mental characteristics that all humans
share
– Looks at how mind works and why it works as it does
– Behavior seen as having an adaptive or survival value
Biopsychological Perspective

Compare the two preserved brains above. A “normal” brain is on the left while the one on the right is from someone
diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease. Note the narrowed gyri (bulges) and widened sulci (grooves) in the brain on the
right. This is due to progressive brain cell loss associated with Alzheimer’s disease. In the case of dementia and
other progressive diseases, one focus of the biological perspective is examining how thinking and behavior changes
over time as the brain changes. You may also notice the brains are not identical in size. This is due to slight
differences between individuals and how individual specimens respond to the preservation and plastination
processes.
1.3 Modern Perspectives (8 of 8)

Psychologists with an evolutionary perspective would be interested in how this couple selected each other as partners .

Source: Lopolo/123RF
Table 1.1: The Seven Modern Perspectives in Psychology (1 of
2)

Perspective Major Focus and Concepts Major Theorists

Psychodynamic Development of sense of self, motivation Sigmund Freud, Carl Gustav Jung,
for social/interpersonal Alfred Adler, Karen Horney,
relationships Erik Erikson, Anna Freud

Behavioral Classical and operant conditioning, concept Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson,
of reinforcement, focus on Edward L. Thorndike, B. F.
observable behavior Skinner

Humanistic The ability of the individual to direct and Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers,
control his or her own life, free Natalie Rogers
will, self-actualization
Table 1.1: The Seven Modern Perspectives in Psychology
(2 of 2)

Perspective Major Focus and Concepts Major Theorists

Cognitive Perception, memory, intelligence, thought Jean Piaget, Noam Chomsky,
processes, problem solving, language, Elizabeth Loftus, Howard Gardner,
learning, the role of the brain and nervous Fergus I. M. Craik, Raymond Cattell,
system Eleanor Rosch

Sociocultural Relationship between social behavior and Lev Vygotsky, John Darley, Bibb
the contexts of family, social groups, and Latané, Albert Bandura, Leon
culture Festinger, Henri Tajfel, Philip
Zimbardo, Stanley Milgram

Biopsychological Influences of genetics, Paul Broca, Charles Darwin, Michael

Gazzaniga, Roger Sperry, Carl
hormones, and the activity of Wernicke, S. Marc Breedlove, Lisa
the nervous Feldman Barrett
system on human and animal
behavior
Evolutionary The biological bases for universal mental David Buss, Richard Dawkins, Leda
characteristics that are Cosmides, Robert Trivers, David C.
shared by all humans Geary, Todd K. Shackelford, Daved F.
Bjorklund, Anne Campbell, Susan
Oyama
1.4 Psychological Professionals and Areas of
Specialization (1 of 3)
Learning Objective 1.4 Differentiate between the various types of professionals within the
field of psychology.

• Psychologist
– Professional with an academic degree and
specialized training in one or more areas of
psychology
– May specialize in any one of a large number of areas
▪ Clinical, counseling, developmental, social, and
personality, among others
– May conduct basic research, applied research, or
both
Figure 1.3: Work Settings and Subfields of Psychology

There are many different work settings for psychologists. Although not obvious from the first chart, many psychologists work in more
than one setting. For example, a clinical psychologist may work in a hospital setting and teach at a university or college. The second pie
chart shows the specialty areas of psychologists who recently received their doctorates.
1.4 Psychological Professionals and Areas of Specialization (2
of 3)

– Psychiatrist
– Medical doctor who has specialized in the diagnosis and treatment of
psychological disorders
– Psychiatric social worker
– Social worker with some training in therapy methods who focuses on
environmental conditions that can have an impact on mental disorders, such as
poverty, overcrowding, stress, and drug abuse
1.4 Psychological Professionals and Areas of Specialization (3 of
3)

Psychiatric social workers help many kinds and ages of people. The woman on the right might be going
through a divorce, dealing with the loss of a spouse, or even recovering from drug abuse.

Source: B. Boissonnet/BSIP/Alamy Stock Photo

Concept Map: Modern Perspectives (1 of 2)
Concept Map: Modern Perspectives (2 of 2)
1.5–1.10 Scientific Research

– Psychology is about trying to determine facts, reducing uncertainty and bias, and
promoting scientific thinking.
1.5 Thinking Critically About Critical Thinking (1 of 3)

Learning Objective 1.5 Recall the basic criteria for critical thinking that people can use in their everyday lives.

• Critical thinking: making reasoned judgments

about claims.
• Four basic criteria for critical thinking:
1. There are very few “truths” that do not need to be
subjected to testing.
▪ Example: Astrology
2. All evidence is not equal in quality.
▪ Example: Studies on the effectiveness of a drug
deliberately manipulated
1.5 Thinking Critically About Critical Thinking (2 of 3)

– Four basic criteria of critical thinking (continued):

3. Just because someone is considered an authority or has a lot of expertise does
not make everything that person claims automatically true.
– Questions to consider:
– How good is the evidence?
– Are there other alternative explanations?
– Is the alternative explanation simpler?
– Law of parsimony: The simplest explanation is always the best.
1.5 Thinking Critically About Critical Thinking (3 of 3)

– Four basic criteria of critical thinking (continued):

4. Critical thinking requires an open mind.
– Critical thinking is a delicate balance between skepticism and willingness to
consider possibilities
– Example: Life on Mars not likely, but given enough evidence, one could
consider the possibility.
1.6 The Scientific Approach (1 of 4)
Learning Objective 1.6 Recall the five steps of the scientific approach.

• Scientific approach: system of gathering data so

that bias and error in measurement are reduced.
• Psychology’s goals:
– Description: What is happening?
– Explanation: Why is it happening?
– Prediction: When will it happen again?
– Control: How can it be changed?
1.6 The Scientific Approach (2 of 4)

Is this an environment that you would want to work in? Some researchers have wondered if your answer
might be influenced by gender.

Source: Fancy/Alamy Stock Photo

1.6 The Scientific Approach (3 of 4)

– Steps in the scientific approach:

– Perceive the question
– Form a hypothesis
– Tentative explanation of a phenomenon based on observations
– Test the hypothesis
– Draw conclusions
– Report your results
– Others may replicate study or experiment to see whether same results will be obtained to
demonstrate reliability of results
1.6 The Scientific Approach (4 of 4)

The scientific approach can be used to

determine if children who watch violence
on television are more likely to be
aggressive than those who do not.

Source: Chris Butler/Age FotoStock/Alamy Stock

Photo
1.7 Descriptive Methods (1 of 6)
Learning Objective 1.7 Compare and contrast some of the methods used to describe behavior.

• Naturalistic Observation
– Watching animals or humans behave in their normal
environment
– Major advantage: realistic picture of behavior
– Disadvantages
▪Observer effect
▪Observer bias
▪Each naturalistic setting is unique, and
observations may not hold
1.7 Descriptive Methods (2 of 6)

This researcher is studying the behavior of a

group of meerkats. Is this naturalistic
observation? Why or why not?

Source: Niels van Gijn/John Warburton-Lee

Photography/Alamy Stock Photo
1.7 Descriptive Methods (3 of 6)

The researcher in the foreground is watching the children through a one-way mirror to get a description of their behavior. Observations
such as these are just one of many ways that psychologists have of investigating behavior. Why is it important for the researcher to be
behind a one-way mirror?

Source: Marmaduke St. John/Alamy Stock Photo

1.7 Descriptive Methods (4 of 6)

– Laboratory Observation
– Watching animals or humans behave in a laboratory setting
– Advantages
– Control over environment
– Allows use of specialized equipment
– Disadvantage
– Artificial situation may result in artificial behavior

– Descriptive methods lead to formation of testable hypotheses

1.7 Descriptive Methods (5 of 6)

– Case Studies
– Study of one individual in great detail
– Advantage: tremendous amount of detail
– Disadvantage: cannot apply to others
– Famous case study: Phineas Gage
Case Study: Phineas Gage

Phineas Gage survived a steel tamping rod

going through his head after some
explosive powder went off unexpectedly.
The steel tamping rod entered above the
left side of his mouth, passed through his
left frontal lobe, and exited through the top
of his skull.

Source: JACOPIN /BSIP/Alamy Stock Photo

1.7 Descriptive Methods (6 of 6)
– Surveys
– Researchers ask a series of questions about the topic under study
– Given to representative sample of population
– Population: entire group of people or animals in which researcher is interested
– Advantages: data from large numbers of people; able to study covert
behaviors
– Disadvantages: must ensure representative sample or results not
meaningful; courtesy bias
Survey: Participating in a Research Survey
1.8 Correlations: Finding Relationships (1 of 3)

Learning Objective 1.8 Explain how researchers use the correlational technique to study relationships between
two or more variables.

• Correlation
– Measure of relationship between two variables
▪ Variable: anything that can change or vary
▪Knowing value of one variable allows researchers to
predict the value of other variable
– Measures of two variables go into a mathematical
formula and produce a correlation coefficient (r), which
represents two things:
▪Direction of the relationship
▪Strength of the relationship
1.8 Correlations: Finding Relationships (2 of 3)

– Correlation coefficient ranges from

-1.00 to +1.00
– The closer to +1.00 or -1.00, the stronger the relationship between the
variables
– No correlation = 0.0
– Perfect correlation = -1.00 or +1.00
1.8 Correlations: Finding Relationships (3 of 3)

– Positive correlation: variables are related in the same direction

– As one increases, the other increases
– As one decreases, the other decreases
– Negative correlation: variables are related in opposite direction
– As one increases, the other decreases
– Correlation does not prove causation!
Figure 1.4: Five Scatterplots

These scatterplots show direction and strength of correlation. It should be noted that perfect correlations, whether
positive or negative, rarely occur in the real world.
1.9 The Experiment (1 of 5)
Learning Objective 1.9 Identify the steps involved in designing an experiment.

• Experiment
– A deliberate manipulation of a variable to see whether corresponding
changes in behavior result, allowing the determination of cause-and-effect
relationships

• Operationalization: specific definition of a variable of interest that

allows it to be directly measured
– Example: definition of aggressive play
1.9 The Experiment (2 of 5)

– Independent variable (IV)

– Variable in an experiment that is manipulated by the experimenter
– Example of IV: violent TV
– Dependent variable (DV)
– Variable in an experiment that represents the measurable response or behavior of
subjects in the experiment
– Example of DV: aggressive play
1.9 The Experiment (3 of 5)

The act of pushing each other could be part of an operationalization of aggressive behavior .

Source: Clinton L/123RF

1.9 The Experiment (4 of 5)

– Experimental group
– Subjects in an experiment who are subjected to the independent variable
– Experimental group: watch violent cartoon
– Control group
– Subjects in an experiment who are not subjected to the independent variable and
who may receive a placebo treatment (controls for confounding variables).
– Control group: watch nonviolent cartoon
1.9 The Experiment (5 of 5)

– Importance of Randomization
– Random assignment: process of assigning subjects to experimental or
control groups randomly, so that each subject has an equal chance of
being in either group
– Controls for confounding (extraneous, interfering) variables
1.10 Experimental Hazards and Controlling for Effects
(1 of 3)

Learning Objective 1.10 Recall two common sources of problems in an experiment and
some ways to control for these effects.

• Placebo effect
– Phenomenon in which the expectations of
participants in a study can influence their
behavior
• Experimenter effect
– Tendency of experimenter’s expectations for a
study to unintentionally influence results of the
study
1.10 Experimental Hazards and Controlling for Effects
(2 of 3)

This woman suffers from chronic pain. If she were given a new pain-killing drug, the researcher could not be certain that any
improvement in her pain was caused by the drug rather than by the woman’s belief that the drug would work. The expectations of any
person in an experimental study can affect the outcome of the study, a phenomenon known as the placebo effect.

Source: Fotokostic/Shutterstock
1.10 Experimental Hazards and Controlling for Effects
(3 of 3)

– Single-blind study
– Subjects do not know whether they are in
experimental or control group
– Reduces placebo effect
– Double-blind study
– Neither the experimenter nor the subjects know
which subjects are in the experimental or control
group
Concept Map: Scientific Research (1 of 3)
Concept Map: Scientific Research (2 of 3)
Concept Map: Scientific Research (3 of 3)
 APA Goal 2: A Sample Experiment (1 of 2)

– Hypothesis
– Knowing that other people might think one’s success in school is due to athletic
ability rather than intelligence can make an athlete perform poorly on an academic
test
– Independent variable
– Timing of “high threat” question
– Dependent variable
– Test scores
 APA Goal 2: A Sample Experiment (2 of 2)

– Experimental group
– Answered “high threat” question before taking the test
– Control group
– Answered “high threat” question after taking the test
– Results-supported hypothesis
– Those asked the “high threat” question before the intellectual test scored
significantly lower on that test
1.11–1.12 Ethics of Psychological Research

– As the field of psychology grew, and both the scope and the amount of research
involving people and animals increased, it became apparent protections needed to be
implemented
– The experiment with “Little Albert” and other such studies would be cruel by
today’s standards
1.11 The Guidelines for Doing Research with People (1 of 3)

Learning Objective 1.11 Identify some of the common ethical guidelines for doing research with people.

• Scientists must ensure ethical treatment for

research participants
• Institutional review boards
– Groups of psychologists or other professionals who
look over each proposed research study and judge it
according to its safety and consideration for the
participants in the study
1.11 The Guidelines for Doing Research with People (2 of
3)

– Common Ethical Guidelines

 Rights and well-being of participants must be weighed
against the study’s value to science.
 Participants must be allowed to make an informed decision
about participation.
 Deception must be justified.
 Participants may withdraw from study at any time
1.11 The Guidelines for Doing Research with People (3 of
3)

– Common Ethical Guidelines (continued)

 Participants must be protected from risks or told explicitly
of risks.
 Investigators must debrief participants.
 Data must remain confidential.
 If a study results in undesirable consequences, the
researcher is responsible for detecting and
removing/correcting.
1.12 Animal Research
Learning Objective 1.12 Explain why psychologists sometimes use animals in their research.

• Non-human animal research answers questions we could

never investigate with humans
• Focus on avoiding exposing animal subjects to
unnecessary pain or suffering
• Approximately, only about 7 percent of psychological
studies use animals
Concept Map 1.11–1.12 Ethics of Psychological Research
Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Critical Thinking and Social Media

Learning Objective 1.13 Identify strategies for critically evaluating news and other information shared on social media.

• Applying the skills of critically thinking toward

information posted on social media can help
students discern between what is fact and what
is fiction