What is Networking

Connecting equipment together via a communication channel to create a Network. Examples of equipment are: personal and mainframe computers, printers, plotters, fax machines, mobile etc Examples of communication channels: cable and phone lines and satellites, using copper wires, fiber optic cable, radio waves and infrared

Benefits of Network
Sharing of

Hardware: Hard disk, Printer, Plotter, Modem Software: Applications and Data Communication systems: Email, Voice Mail Windows NT/2000/2003/2008, Linux/Unix/Solaris, NetWare

Accessing Computers running Diverse OSs such as

Collectively, the sharing of data, information and devices is called resource sharing, the ultimate goal of networking.
The way in which networks offer Information and Resource sharing is via services.

Basic Components needed for Network Communication

Two or more computers Network Operating Systems (NOS) Controls the Network operation. Examples: Windows 98/ME, NT, 2000, XP, 2003, 2008, Vista, Windows 7, UNIX/LINUX, Netware. Network protocol that sets the communication rules TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol IPX/SPX - Internetwork Packet eXchange / Sequenced Packet eXchange (Novell's NetWare protocol) NetBEUI - NetBIOS Enhanced User Interace (Developed by IBM & Microsoft for NetBIOS) AppleTalk - Macintosh SNA Systems Network Architecture (SNA) is IBM's proprietary

Basic Components needed for Network Communication

Network hardware -Network Interface Cards (NIC) -hub,Switch,Router,

Modem/ Router for WAN Communication Network or communication medium over which data is sent cabling, telephone lines, wireless devices, and satellites using some form of data transmission, i.e., electrical signals, microwave, radio and light waves.

Client/Server Model

Fundamentally, any computer on a network plays one of two basic roles:

Client - accesses shared information and resources. Server - stores and shares information and resources.

Clients send requests to a server, and the server sends a response back to the client.

Client/Server Model

Types of Servers
Mail Servers News Servers Proxy Servers Telnet Servers Web Servers

Application Servers Audio/Video Servers Chat Servers Fax Servers FTP Servers

Role of A Network Administrator

Technical Tasks performed by a Network Administrator:

Installing, configuring, and troubleshooting network server software and hardware Installing, configuring, and troubleshooting network client software and hardware Understanding the characteristics of different transmission media Network design Understanding network protocols Understanding how users interact with the network Managing network using Network Management Software.

Role of A Network Administrator

Non-technical Tasks performed by a Network Administrator:

Vendor Interactions / Customer Relations Oral and Written Communications (Documentation) Teamwork

Internetwork
Internetwork is created when you take two or more LANs or WANs and connect them via a Layer 3 i.e Network layer device such as router, and configure a logical network addressing scheme with a protocol like IP

Network segmentation
Breaking up a larger network into a number of smaller ones is called network segmentation and its accomplished using routers, switches and bridges

LAN traffic congestion

Causes of LAN traffic congestion are:

Too many hosts in a broadcast domain

Broadcast storms
Multicasting Low bandwidth

Collision Domains
Networking devices that share the same medium (are connected to the same physical segment) are said to belong to the same collision or bandwidth domain

Collision Domains
The network area in Ethernet over which frames that have collided will be detected. Collisions are propagated by hubs and repeaters, but not by LAN switches, routers, or bridges

Broadcast Domain

A broadcast domain is a set of all devices on a network segment that hear all broadcasts sent on that segment.

Collision domain & Broadcast domain

Hubs create one collision domain and one broadcast domain. Bridges break up collision domains but create one broadcast domain. Switches break up collision domains but create one broadcast domain by default. Routers break up broadcast domain as well as Collision domain.

Collision domain & Broadcast domain

Cabling Types
LANs typically use either copper or fiberoptic cabling. Copper cabling can include one strand of copper across which an electrical voltage is transmitted, or many strands of copper. Fiber-optic cabling uses light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and lasers to transmit data.

UTP Categories

Ethernet Cabling
The types of Ethernet cables available are: Straight-through cable Crossover cable Rolled cable

Straight-Through Cable
The straight-through cable is used to connect: Host (PC) to switch Host to hub Router to switch Router to hub

Straight-Through Cable

Straight-Through Cable

Straight-Through Cable

Straight-Through Cable

Crossover Cable
The crossover cable can be used to connect: Switch to Switch Hub to Hub Host to Host Hub to Switch Router direct to Host Router to Router

Crossover Cable

Crossover Cable

Crossover Cable

Rolled Cable
The Rolled cable is used to connect: Host to Router Console* Host to Switch Console*

Router or switch Console is a special port used for configuring and managing the Router / switch

Rolled Cable

Hubs
is a Layer 1 device Is a physical layer device is referred to as an Ethernet concentrator or a multi-port repeater regenerate data signals which allows networks to be extended to greater distances do not make any decisions when data signals are received no examination of the frame is performed and no forwarding decisions are made. Hubs exist within a single collision domain Hubs exist within a single broadcast domain

Attenuation
limits

the distance that a LAN can cover; the signal weakens as it travels through the network; due to the resistance in the cable or medium through which the signal travels causes the loss of signal strength

Repeaters

is a Layer 1 device Is a physical layer device Repeaters are the most basic form of forwarding devices. Repeaters dont see the contents of headers Do not make any decisions when data signals are received They simply amplify electrical signals. A repeater receives a frame, regenerates an exact copy of the frame, and forwards it along its way Repeaters are primarily used to extend the maximum length of a cable run Repeaters exist within a single collision domain increase the collision domain size; increase the broadcast domain size.

Switch

is a Layer 2 device
has the intelligence to make forwarding decisions based on MAC addresses contained within transmitted data frames

More efficient use of bandwidth and increased throughput. Divide the Collision Domain Single Broadcast Domain

Bridge

is a Layer 2 device used to divide, or segment, a network collects and selectively pass data frames between two network segments learns the MAC address of devices on each connected segment builds a bridging table forwards or blocks traffic based on bridging table results in smaller collision domains and greater network efficiency do not restrict broadcast traffic

Routers

is a Layer 3 device Is a Network layer device

Makes decisions based on groups of network addresses, or classes; Do not forward broadcasts unless they are programmed to do so; Divide both the collision domains and the broadcast domains; Are the most important devices to regulate traffic on large networks; Enable communication between two computers regardless of location or operating system

Routers
provide connectivity between networks and subnetworks bridges and switches provide segmentation within a single network or subnetwork

OSI

OSI Reference Model

In 1984, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) developed the OSI Reference Model ISO developed the seven-layer model to help vendors and network administrators gain a better understanding of how data is handled and transported between networking devices, as well as to provide a guideline for the implementation of networking standards and technologies

OSI Reference Model

Defines the process for connecting two layers together, promoting interoperability between vendors Separates a complex function into simpler components Eases implementations and simplifies troubleshooting Provides a teaching tool to help network administrators understand the communication process used between networking components

OSI Reference Model

Allows multiple-vendor development through standardization of network components Allows various types of network hardware and software to communicate Prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layers, so it does not hamper development

OSI Reference Model

OSI Reference Model provides:
Interoperability Simplification Modular Design Training

Layers of the OSI Reference Model

Application Layer (Layer 7)

This layer provides the protocols and services applications need to take advantage of a network.

Examples : DNS,DHCP,TELNET, SSH,FTP,HTTP,POP3,SMTP etc.

Presentation Layer ( Layer 6)

The presentation layer determines how data is transmitted and represented to the user.

Examples of presentation layer protocols and standards include ASCII, BMP, GIF, JPEG, WAV, AVI, and MPEG.

Session Layer ( Layer 5)

The session layer is responsible for setting up, maintaining and tearing down network connections.

Examples include RPCs ,NFS,SQL

Transport Layer (Layer 4)

It provides both guaranteed data delivery and no guarantee of data delivery. Efficient guaranteed delivery is provided through sequencing, acknowledgment, and flow control. Flow control methods include buffering, windowing, and congestion avoidance. Examples TCP and UDP

Network Layer (Layer 3)

The network layer provides a logical topology, defines layer 3 addresses, and finds best paths to logical address destinations. Routers function at the network layer and are responsible for packet switching and selecting paths to destinations.

Layer 3 protocols include IP, IPX, and AppleTalk

Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

The data link layer defines hardware (MAC) addresses as well as the communication process that occurs within a media type. Switches and bridges function at the data link layer. Error detection occurs here, but not correction Examples protocols and standards include IEEEs 802.2(Logical Link Control (LLC), 802.3(Ethernet) , Ethernet II, PPP, and Frame Relay.

Physical Layer( Layer 1)

The physical layer defines physical properties for connections and communication, including wires (UTP and fiber) and connectors (RJ-45 and DB-9) A hub and a repeater are examples of devices that function at the physical layer.

OSI Upper Layer

OSI Bottom Layer

OSI

PDU Term

Devices at OSI layer

TCP/IP

History of TCP/IP

Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is an industry standard suite of protocols that is designed for large networks consisting of network segments that are connected by routers.

TCP/IP is the protocol that is used on the Internet, which is the collection of thousands of networks worldwide that connect research facilities, universities, libraries, government agencies, private companies, and individuals.

TCP/IP

The TCP/IP is the results of research conducted by the United States Department of Defense (DoD) Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in the late 1960s and early 1970s

Some important TCP/IP milestones

In 1970, ARPANET hosts started to use Network Control Protocol (NCP), a preliminary form of what would become the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). In 1972, the Telnet protocol was introduced. Telnet is used for terminal emulation to connect dissimilar systems. In the early 1970s, these systems were different types of mainframe computers.

In 1973, the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) was introduced. FTP is used to exchange files between dissimilar systems.
In 1974, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) was specified in detail. TCP replaced NCP and provided enhanced reliable communication services. In 1981, the Internet Protocol (IP) (also known as IP version 4 [IPv4]) was specified in detail. IP provides addressing and routing functions for end-toend delivery.

In 1982, the Defense Communications Agency (DCA) and ARPA established the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP) as the TCP/IP protocol suite. In 1983, ARPANET switched from NCP to TCP/IP. In 1984, the Domain Name System (DNS) was introduced. DNS resolves domain names (such as www.example.com) to IP addresses (such as 192.168.5.18). In 1995, Internet service providers (ISPs) began to offer Internet access to businesses and individuals. In 1996, the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) was introduced. The World Wide Web uses HTTP. In 1996, the first set of IP version 6 (IPv6) standards were published.

TCP/IP

Network Interface Layer

The Network Interface layer (also called the Network Access layer) sends TCP/IP packets on the network medium and receives TCP/IP packets off the network medium. TCP/IP was designed to be independent of the network access method, frame format, and medium. Therefore, TCP/IP can be used to communicate across differing network types that use LAN technologiessuch as Ethernet and 802.11 wireless LANand WAN technologiessuch as Frame Relay and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM).

By being independent of any specific network technology, TCP/IP can be adapted to new technologies.

Internet Layer

The Internet layer responsibilities include addressing, packaging, and routing functions. The Internet layer is analogous to the Network layer of the OSI model.

The core protocols for the IPv4 Internet layer consist of the following:

The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) resolves the Internet layer address to a Network Interface layer address such as a hardware address. The Internet Protocol (IP) is a routable protocol that addresses, routes, fragments, and reassembles packets. The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) reports errors and other information to help you diagnose unsuccessful packet delivery. The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) manages IP multicast groups.

Transport Layer
The Transport layer (also known as the Host-to-Host Transport layer) provides the Application layer with session and datagram communication services. The Transport layer encompasses the responsibilities of the OSI Transport layer. The core protocols of the Transport layer are TCP and UDP.

TCP/UDP
TCP provides a one-to-one, connection-oriented, reliable communications service. TCP establishes connections, sequences and acknowledges packets sent, and recovers packets lost during transmission. UDP provides a one-to-one or one-to-many, connectionless, unreliable communications service. UDP is used when the amount of data to be transferred is small . when an application developer does not want the overhead associated with TCP connections or when the applications or upper-layer protocols provide reliable delivery.

Application Layer

The Application layer allows applications to access the services of the other layers, and it defines the protocols that applications use to exchange data. The most widely known Application layer protocols are http,https,ftp,telnet,DNS,DHCP,SNMP,RIP,SMTP ..

MAC ADDRESS

For Network communications, each machine on the network segment needs a unique MAC address. Media Access Control Also known as hardware address or physical address The hardware devices use MAC address for communication. A MAC address is 48 bits in length and is represented as a hexadecimal number. The first six digits of a MAC address are associated with the vendor, or maker, of the NIC. Each vendor has one or more unique sets of six digits. These first six digits are commonly called the organizationally unique identifier (OUI). For example, Cisco Systemss OUI values is 00-00-0C 00-60-08 belong to 3Com corporation

Vendor/Ethernet/Bluetooth MAC Address Lookup

Use the following URL for MAC Address Lookup

http://www.coffer.com/mac_find

MAC ADDRESS FORMAT

IP Address

An IP address is a numeric identifier assigned to each machine on an IP network. An IP address consists of 32 bits of information. These bits are divided into four sections,referred to as octets or bytes, each containing 1 byte An IP address is a logical or software address Size is 32 bit /4 Byte(IPv4) A system can have one or more IP address irrespective of no. of NIC

Physical vs Logical Address

Logical Address

32 bit/4 Byte IP Address Software Address Network layer Layer 3 Used by software Multiple IP address can be assigned to PC Can be changed Normally stored in hard disk ex: 210.212.51.19

48 bit/6 Byte MAC Address Hardware Address Data Link Layer Layer 2 Used by hardware MAC address depends on no. of network adapter Cannot be changed Burned in NIC s ROM ex: 00-53-45-00-00-00

Physical Address

IP Address
You can depict an IP address using one of three methods: Dotted-decimal, as in 172.16.30.56 Binary, as in 10101100.00010000.00011110.00111000 Hexadecimal, as in AC.10.1E.38

IP Address
The network address uniquely identifies each network. In the IP address 172.16.30.56, for example, 172.16 is the network address.

The node address (Host address) is assigned to, and uniquely identifies, In the sample IP address 172.16.30.56, the 30.56 is the node address.

IP Address Classes
Class Class Class Class Class

A B C D E

IP Address Classes

Network Address Range: Class A

The first bit of the first byte in a Class A network address must always be off, or 0. This means a Class A address must be between 0 and 127 inclusive. Consider the following network address: 0xxxxxxx Class A range of network addresses: 00000000 = 0 01111111 = 127

Network Address Range: Class B

In a Class B network, the first bit of the first byte must always be turned on,but the second bit must always be turned off. Consider the following network address: 10xxxxxx The range for a Class B network: 10000000 = 128 10111111 = 191

Network Address Range: Class C

For Class C networks, the first 2 bits of the first octet as always turned on, but the third bit can never be on. Consider the following network address: 110xxxxx Range for a Class C network: 11000000 = 192 11011111 = 223

Network Address Range: Class D

For Class D networks, the first 3 bits of the first octet as always turned on, but the third bit can never be on. Consider the following network address: 1110xxxx Range for a Class C network: 11100000 = 224 11101111 = 239

Network Address Range: Class E

For Class E networks, the first 4 bits of the first octet as always turned on, but the third bit can never be on. Consider the following network address: 11110xxx Range for a Class C network: 240-254 255 is a reserved address and is used for local broadcasting purposes

The Five formats of IP Addresses

Class A B
0 NetID 10 110 1110 NetID NetID HostID HostID HostID

C
D

Multicast Address Research/Future Uses

8 bits 8 bits 8 bits

E 11110
8 bits

Network Address Range

Class

A: Class B : Class C : Class D : Class E :

1 127* 128 - 191 192 - 223 224 - 239 240 - 254

*127 is reserved for loopback interface 255 is a reserved for broadcasting purposes

Class A IP address

1st octet = network address, octets 2-4 = host address 1st bits of 1st octet set to 0 up to (2^24 - 2) host addresses (16.8M)

Class B IP address
1st 2 octets = network address, octets 3-4 = host address 1st 2 bits of 1st octet set to 10 up to (2^16 - 2) host addresses (65534)

Class C IP address
1st 3 octets = network address, octet 4 = host address 1st 3 bits of 1st octet set to 110 up to (2^8 - 2) host addresses (254)

Public & Private IP Addresses

IP addresses used on the Internet must be unique That requires a type of address known as a public IP address. This is simply a range of the IP address space reserved for public use. Isolated networks make use of an area of the IP address range known as private addresses. If a privately addressed network ever needs to connect to another network across the Internet, the host initiating the communication must have its private address translated to a public address (usually through NAT).

Public & Private IP Addresses

Private IP Addresses
Class A: 10.0.0.010.255.255.255 (1 Class A network) Class B: 172.16.0.0172.31.255.255 (16 Class B networks) Class C: 192.168.0.0192.168.255.255 (256 Class C networks)

???????

180.92.169.169

Public IP Addresses

Synonymous terms for public addresses are registered, routable, external, legal, non-reusable, global, and globally unique addresses

Private IP Addresses

Synonymous terms for private addresses are non-routable, internal, local, reusable, illegal, and unregistered.

Types of IP address

Static IP address
Manually configured by network administrator manageable for small networks requires careful checks to avoid duplication (IP conflicts)

Dynamic IP address DHCP

assigned by server when host boots derived automatically from a range of addresses duration of lease negotiated, then address released back to server

IANA
The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) is ultimately responsible for handing out and managing public addresses The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) is responsible for the global coordination of the DNS Root, IP addressing, and other Internet protocol resource IANA coordinates the global pool of IP and AS numbers, providing them to Regional Internet Registries.

IANA
Users are assigned IP addresses by Internet service providers (ISPs). ISPs obtain allocations of IP addresses from a local Internet registry (LIR) or National Internet Registry (NIR), or from their appropriate Regional Internet Registry (RIR)

Regional Internet Registry (RIR)

All RIRs are controlled by IANA

Regional Internet Registry (RIR)

Normally we get public addresses directly from ISP, which, in turn, requests them from one of five upstream address registries: American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) Reseaux IP Europeans Network Coordination Center (RIPE NCC) Asia Pacific Registry for Internet Numbers (APNIC) Latin American and Caribbean Internet Address Registry (LACNIC) African Network Information Centre (AfriNIC)

Regional Internet Registry (RIR)

AfriNIC Africa Region APNIC Asia/Pacific Region http://www.apnic.net/ ARIN North America Region LACNIC Latin America and some Caribbean Islands RIPE NCC Europe, the Middle East, and Central Asia

TCP/IP Troubleshooting utilities

TCP/IP Troubleshooting utilities

hostname ipconfig/ ifconfig / winipcfg arp ping tracert/traceroute pathping netstat getmac nslookup

hostname

Running the command would display the hostname for the computer

ipconfig/ winipcfg/ ifconfig

ipconfig Displays the current TCP/IP configuration and information on windows NT/2000/XP/2003/Vista/2008 winipcfg Displays the current TCP/IP configuration and information on windows 95/98 ifconfig Displays the current TCP/IP configuration and information on UNIX, Linux machine

ipconfig/ winipcfg/ ifconfig

Also used to manage DHCP configuration and the DNS client resolver cache.

ARP

A protocol that obtains the MAC address of a host and then creates a local database that maps the MAC address to the host's IP address. This database that lists the MAC and IP addresses is called an ARP table. Also used for adding static arp entry Allows you to view and edit the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) cache. The ARP cache maps IPv4 addresses to media access control (MAC) addresses.

PING

A utility that is used to verify that TCP/IP is installed, bound to the NIC, configured correctly, and communicating with the network. Simply to determine if a host is responding. PING uses ICMP to send echo request and echo reply messages that determine the validity of an IP address

tracert/traceroute
Tracert (Windows) Traceroute (Linux/Unix) show the route taken by packets across an IP network Determines the path taken to a destination by sending Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) Echo Request messages to the destination with incrementally increasing Time to Live (TTL) field values

pathping

Traces the route that an IPv4 or IPv6 packet takes to a destination and displays information on packet losses for each router and subnet in the path.

netstat

A utility used to display TCP/IP statistics and details about TCP/IP components and connections on a host. Information that can be obtained from the netstat command include: the port on which a particular TCP/IP service is running, whether or not a remote node is logged into a host, which network connections are currently established for a client, how many packets have been handled by a network interface since it was activated, and how many data errors have occurred on a particular network interface

getmac

Returns the media access control (MAC) address and list of network protocols associated with each address for all network cards in each computer, either locally or across a network.

NSLOOKUP
This utility allows you to query the DNS database from any computer on the network. You can find the DNS host name of a device by specifying its IP address, or vice versa. This utility is useful for verifying that a host is configured correctly or for troubleshooting DNS resolution problems

Troubleshooting IP Addressing

Open a DOS window and ping 127.0.0.1 This is the diagnostic or loopback address, and if you get a successful ping, your IP stack is then considered to be initialized. If it fails, then you have an IP stack failure and need to reinstall TCP/IP on the host.

Troubleshooting IP Addressing

From the DOS window, ping the IP address of the local host. If thats successful, then your Network Interface Card (NIC) card is functioning. If it fails, then there is a problem with the NIC card. This doesnt mean that a cable is plugged into the NIC, only that the IP protocol stack on the host can communicate to the NIC.

Troubleshooting IP Addressing
From the DOS window, ping the default gateway (router). If the ping works, it means that the NIC is plugged into the network and can communicate on the local network. If it fails, then you have a local physical network problem that could be happening anywhere from the NIC to the router.

NetBIOS Names
A NetBIOS name is a 16-byte name that identifies a NetBIOS application on the network. A NetBIOS name is either a unique or group name. When a NetBIOS application communicates with a specific NetBIOS application on a specific computer, a unique name is used. When a NetBIOS process communicates with multiple NetBIOS applications on multiple computers, a group name is used.