Coasts

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Constructive and destructive waves
•Destructive waves plunge
downwards. The wave front
is steep and the waves are
close together. The backwash
is stronger than the swash.
•Constructive waves break
forwards. The wave front is
not too steep and the
wavelength is long. The
swash (up the beach) is
stronger than the backwash
(out to sea).

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Windward and leeward coasts
•Erosion is most powerful on
windward coasts, with high-
energy waves on the eastern
side of most Caribbean
islands.
•Erosion is less powerful on
leeward coasts with small,
low-energy waves on the
western side of most
Caribbean islands.

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Processes of wave erosion
•Hydraulic action: the
direct force of the breaking
waves.
•Solution: Sea water
dissolves soluble minerals.
•Abrasion or corrasion:
Waves throw sand and
stones against the shoreline.
•Attrition: Sand grains and
small stones are thrown
against each other, and worn
smooth.
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How cliffs are eroded
•Marine erosion cuts a notch
at sea level.
•When the cliff is undercut, a
section breaks off. The cliff
retreats.
•Rubble is broken down and
removed (attrition).
•A wave-cut platform
develops underwater.
•Consolidated rocks maintain
a steep cliff profile.

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Caves, arches and stacks
•Two caves are formed on
each side of a headland.

•The caves join to form a

natural arch.

•The arch collapses, and a

stack remains.
•The stack is eroded by the
waves, to form a stump
below sea level.
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Longshore drift
•Waves approach the shore
at an angle.
•Swash moves sand particles
diagonally up the beach.
•Backwash moves sand
directly down the beach.
•When this process is
repeated many times,
material is moved along the
beach by the waves.

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Bayhead beaches
•Resistant rock forms
headlands, with cliffs.
•Wave attack is concentrated
on the headlands.
•Refraction disperses wave
energy in the bay.
•Sand is deposited to form a
bayhead beach between two
headlands.

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Coastal features in St Lucia
•Steep cliffs form at Ministre
Point, which is exposed to
high-energy waves. Coastal
dykes resist erosion.
•There is a sandy beach at
Pointe Sable, which is
protected by a fringing reef
and the Maria Islands.
•The town of Vieux Fort is on
a sheltered bay, with a low-
energy coast.

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Features formed by coastal deposition

Spits, tombolos and bay bars are formed in shallow waters, usually by longshore drift and constructive waves.

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Offshore bars
•Offshore bars and barrier
islands runs parallel to the
coast in shallow seas.
•Converging movements form
a linear deposit of sand.
•A calm lagoon is formed
between the bar and the
coastline.
•An offshore bar moving
towards the coast may
become a baymouth bar.

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Coastal features in Antigua
•Coastal deposition has
formed bayhead beaches,
coves, tombolos and bayhead
bars on the west coast of
Antigua.
•Mud and silt accumulate in
the calm waters of the
lagoon. Mangroves and other
plants grow there. Open
water is replaced by a
wetland, and then by dry
land.

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Coral reefs
•Reefs are formed by coral
polyps which build a casing
of calcium carbonate as they
grow. They require:
– a temperature of 21-30 °C
– clear water, where sunlight
can penetrate
– saline water, with no river
mouth
– clean, unpolluted water
– well-aerated water with
sufficient oxygen.
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Fringing reefs
•A fringing reef is close to the
shore.
•There is a shallow lagoon
between the reef and the
shore.
•The reef breaks the force of
destructive waves, protecting
beaches from erosion.
•Beach sand contains coral
fragments and other reef
material.

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Barrier reefs and atolls
•A barrier reef is many km
from the shore.
•Barrier reefs were formed as
sea level rose slowly on a
low-lying coastline.
•There is a wide lagoon or
shallow sea between the reef
and the shore.
•Atolls are formed where a
ring of coral surrounds an
interior lagoon.

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Foul Bay, Barbados

Bayhead beach. Steep limestone cliffs. Block of limestone from recent

erosion. Vegetation on stable cliff. Waves break on fringing reef.
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Pico Teneriffe, Barbados
•White oceanic series rocks.
•Coral limestone cap of
darker, weathered rock.
•Waves eroding base of cliff.
•Cliff face is not vertical.
•Coral limestone rubble at
base of cliff.

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Batts Rock Bay, Barbados
•Which features indicate that
the beach is being eroded?

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Little Bay, Barbados
•Describe three features of
coastal erosion or deposition.

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Why coral reefs are important
•Fringing reefs protect
beaches from erosion.
•Corals and other organisms
produce sand.
•Reefs provide a habitat for
fish and marine life.
•Reefs are a recreational
resource for local people and
tourists.

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 How coral reefs are threatened
Land-based threats
– Urbanisation, deforestation
increase fresh water runoff.
– Soil erosion washes sediment
onto the reef.
– Chemical fertilisers and sewage
increase nutrients, encouraging
algae which smother live coral.
– Chemicals such as herbicides
poison growing corals.
Marine threats
– Shipping may run aground on a
reef. Anchors cause damage;
so does dredging.
– Oil spills damage coral reefs.
– Overfishing, trawling or the use
of bleach and explosives may
cause serious damage.
– Tourists may walk on the reef
or break off coral. Pleasure
boats may also cause damage.
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Carbon emissions and coral reefs
•The most serious threats to
coral reefs are of global, not
local origin. Up to 75% of
Caribbean reefs are
threatened.
– Sea temperatures 1-
2 °C above normal may
cause coral ‘bleaching’,
by damaging the algae
which feed the coral
polyps.
– Dissolved CO2 in sea
water increases acidity.
This slows the growth
of coral.
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Damage to coral reefs may cause beach erosion

Waves reach the shore with more energy and erode the beach.

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Threats to the marine environment in Barbados
– From 400 years ago,
settlers cut forests,
causing soil erosion.
– Soil sediment and
agricultural chemicals
damage the coral today.
– Urban and tourism
development increase
fresh water runoff.
Families and businesses
use (and waste) more
fresh water.
– The resulting reef
damage increases
beach erosion.
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What indications of beach erosion are shown here?

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Beach erosion on the west coast of Barbados

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Well-designed structures can reduce beach erosion

Which of these methods are likely control erosion effectively? Which may create further problems?

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Coastal zone management in Barbados
– In 1983, a Coastal Zone
Management Unit was
set up to study, manage
and protect the coast.
– A South Coast sewerage
system was completed in
2005, protecting the
coral reef from pollution.
– At Port St Charles
marina, the coast is
protected by
breakwaters and an
artificial island and reef.

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