Fundamentals of Biomedical

Applications
Dr. Khaja Mujeebuddin Quadry
Professor ECE
Vignan Institute of Technology and Science

1
Human Cell architecture

2
 cell membrane
• The cell membrane, also called the
plasma membrane, is found in all cells
and separates the interior of the cell
from the outside environment. The cell
membrane consists of a lipid bilayer that
is semipermeable. The cell membrane
regulates the transport of materials
entering and exiting the cell.

3
cell membrane

4
 Derivation of the Nernst Equation
• The Nernst equation describes the electrochemical equilibrium
distribution of an ion between two compartments that are
separated by a membrane that contains channels selective for that
ion.
• In an ideal case, the membrane separating the two compartments
allows only the passage of the ion of interest and no other ion.

• The distribution of the ion across the membrane is governed by

the ion concentration gradient across the membrane and leads to
the establishment of a potential difference across the membrane.

• At equilibrium, this potential difference is described by the Nernst

equation, and is referred to as the equilibrium potential
(Veq.) or Nernst potential for that ion.
5
Two solution compartments separated by
a selectively permeable membrane.

6
The intracellular total chemical potential of ion X may be defined as

….Eq.1
where μ is the total intracellular chemical potential for ion X,
i
X

μ0X is the standard chemical potential for ion X,

R is the universal gas constant (8.314 J.K-1.mol-1, Joules per Kelvin per mole),
T is temperature on the Kelvin scale (K = °C + 273.15),
[X]i is the intracellular concentration of ion X, zX is the valence of ion X,
F is the Faraday's constant (96485 C.mol-1, Coulombs per mole), and
Vi is the electrical potential inside the cell.
the natural logarithm of the concentration is used (ln[X]i).
Similarly, we can define the extracellular total chemical potential of ion X as:

….Eq.2
where μoX is the total extracellular chemical potential for ion X,
[X]o is the extracellular concentration of ion X,
Vo is the electrical potential outside the cell, and
μ0X, R, T, zX, and F have the same meanings noted above.
It is important to note that μ0X has the same value in both solution compartments.
It is also important to note that [X]i and [X]o should be expressed using the same concentration unit (μM, mM,
M, etc.).

7
At equilibrium, the following condition must be met:
….Eq.3

Therefore,
….Eq.4
Simplifying and rearranging above Equation , we obtain the following:

….Eq.5

Further simplification Equation 5 yields the following:

….Eq.6
The electrical potential difference between the intracellular and extracellular compartments (Vi − Vo) defines the potential
difference across the plasma membrane, simply referred to as the membrane potential (Vm). We can, therefore, state the
following:
….Eq.7
Replacing Vi − Vo in Equation 6 above with Vm, we obtain the following:

….Eq.8
Finally, solving for Vm, we obtain the Nernst equation:
….Eq.9

An examples of the Nernst equation for ions of physiological interest are shown below:

Sodium ion (Na+) ….Eq.10

8
 Sodium Ion Pump

 Sodium ion pumps play a crucial role in

maintaining the electrochemical gradients and
ionic balance within cells.
 One of the most well-known sodium ion
pumps is the sodium-potassium pump
(Na+/K+ pump), also known as the sodium-
potassium ATPase.
 The sodium-potassium pump is a
transmembrane protein found in the cell
membrane of most animal cells.
9
 Its primary function is to transport sodium ions (Na+) out of
the cell and potassium ions (K+) into the cell against their
respective concentration gradients.
 This is achieved using energy from the hydrolysis of ATP
(adenosine triphosphate).
 The sodium-potassium pump is essential for the proper
functioning of nerve cells, muscle cells, and many other cell
types. It helps ensure that the intracellular and extracellular
environments have the correct ion concentrations for
cellular activities.

10
 Electrolytes present in the cell
Sodium (Na+)
Potassium (K+)
Calcium (Ca2+)
Magnesium (Mg2+)
Chloride (Cl-)
Phosphate (HPO4^2- and H2PO4^-)
Bicarbonate (HCO3-)These electrolytes play essential roles in
various cellular processes, including maintaining cell membrane
potential, regulating osmotic balance, and facilitating nerve and
muscle function. The specific types and concentrations of
electrolytes can vary between different types of
cells and organisms.

11
 absolute refractory periods
The absolute refractory period is a brief period during and immediately following
an action potential in a neuron or muscle cell when it is unable to respond to a new
stimulus, regardless of its strength.
This period is characterized by the inactivation of voltage-gated sodium (Na+)
channels, which are responsible for the initial depolarization phase of an action
potential.
During the absolute refractory period:Sodium Channels are Inactive: The sodium
channels that opened during the rising phase of the action potential are inactivated
and cannot be reopened by another stimulus.
Membrane Cannot Generate Another Action Potential: Because sodium channels
are inactivated, the neuron or muscle cell is temporarily unable to generate another
action potential, no matter how strong the stimulus is.
The absolute refractory period ensures that action potentials in nerve cells and
muscle cells are discrete, unidirectional, and do not overlap.
This property is essential for the proper propagation of nerve impulses and muscle
contractions in a controlled manner. Once the absolute refractory period ends, the
cell enters the relative refractory period, during which it can respond to a stronger-
than-normal stimulus.
12
 Sources of bioelectric potentials and
propagation of action potentials
• Bioelectric potentials, which are electrical potentials generated by biological systems, have various sources.
Some common sources include:
• Resting Membrane Potential: This is a voltage difference across the plasma membrane of a cell when it's at
rest. It's primarily generated by the selective permeability of the cell membrane to ions like potassium (K+)
and sodium (Na+).
• Action Potentials: These are rapid changes in membrane potential that occur in excitable cells like neurons
and muscle cells. They are generated by the opening and closing of voltage-gated ion channels.
• Synaptic Potentials: In neurons, when one neuron communicates with another, synaptic potentials are
generated. These result from the release of neurotransmitters and the opening of ligand-gated ion channels in
the postsynaptic cell.
• Muscle Action Potentials: Muscle cells generate electrical potentials when they contract. These are known as
action potentials in muscle fibers and are responsible for muscle contractions.
• Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG): The electrical activity of the heart is recorded through an ECG. It shows
the depolarization and repolarization of the heart's chambers, known as P, QRS, and T waves.
• Electroencephalogram (EEG): EEG measures the electrical activity in the brain. It detects the synchronized
firing of neurons and is used in neuroscience and clinical settings.
• Electromyogram (EMG): EMG records the electrical activity in muscles. It's used in various medical
applications, including studying muscle disorders and evaluating nerve-muscle communication.
• Electroretinogram (ERG): ERG measures the electrical responses of the retina to light stimuli. It's used in
ophthalmology to diagnose retinal diseases.
• Electrogastrogram (EGG): EGG records the electrical activity of the stomach and is used to study gastric
motility and digestive disorders.Bioelectric Signals in Plants: Plants also generate electrical potentials in
response to various stimuli, such as light (phototropism) or mechanical stimulation (thigmotropism).

13