Fundamentals of Biomedical

Applications
Dr. Khaja Mujeebuddin Quadry
Professor ECE
Vignan Institute of Technology and Science

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 Static characteristics

Static characteristics of medical instruments refer

to their behavior or performance for constant/
DC or very low frequency input.

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 List of Static Characteristics
• Accuracy
• Precision
• Linearity
• Sensitivity
• Range
• Resolution
• Repeatability
• Hysteresis
• Stability
• Drift
• Noise
• Threshold
• Saturation
• Conformance

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 Static Characteristics
Accuracy
Accuracy measures how closely the instrument's
measured value corresponds to the true or accepted
value.
 It is determined by comparing the instrument's
readings with a reference standard.
Higher accuracy ensures more reliable and precise
measurements.
The difference between the true value and the measured value
divided by the true value.

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 Accuracy
• Data points with
(a) low accuracy and (b) high accuracy

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 Precision
 the quality of obtaining the same output from repeated
measurements from the same input under the same conditions.
 High resolution implies high precision.
 It shows the degree of agreement or consistency among
multiple measurements of the same quantity. High precision
indicates low variability in the measurements

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 precision…
• Data points with
(a) low precision and (b) high precision.

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 Linearity
 Linearity describes the ability of an instrument
to produce readings that are directly
proportional to the actual input signal or
quantity being measured.
 A linear instrument exhibits a constant slope in
its calibration curve. Non-linearity can
introduce errors, especially at extreme or non-
standard values.

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 Sensitivity
 Sensitivity measures the instrument's
responsiveness to changes in the input signal
or quantity being measured.
 It quantifies the change in the instrument's
output for a given change in the input.
 Higher sensitivity allows for detection of
smaller changes or variations in the measured
parameter.

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 Range
 The range defines the minimum and maximum
values of the input signal or quantity that an
instrument can accurately measure.
 An instrument should be able to measure
within a specified range without distortion or
saturation.
 The useful range can vary based on the specific
instrument and its application.

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 Resolution
 Resolution refers to the smallest increment or
smallest change in the input signal that an
instrument can reliably measured.
 It is typically expressed in terms of the least
significant digit or the smallest division on the
measuring scale.
 Higher resolution allows for more precise
measurements. Resolution

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 Repeatability ; the quality of obtaining the same output from
repeated measurements from the same input over a period of
time.
 Hysteresis: Hysteresis refers to the phenomenon where the
output of an instrument varies depending on whether the input
signal is increasing or decreasing. It can introduce errors when
measuring dynamic or time-varying parameters. Minimizing
hysteresis ensures accuracy and consistency in readings.
 Stability: Stability describes the instrument's ability to
maintain its accuracy and performance characteristics over
time, despite changes in external factors or environmental
conditions. Stability ensures reliable and consistent
measurements even with prolonged use.

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 Drift: Drift refers to the change in the instrument's output or
performance over time without any change in the input
signal.
 It can be caused by factors such as aging, temperature
variations, or component degradation. Minimizing drift is
crucial for maintaining accurate measurements.
 Noise: Noise represents unwanted(signal) random
fluctuations or interference in the instrument's output signal
that can affect its accuracy.
 It can arise from electrical interference, environmental
factors, or inherent limitations of the instrument. Reducing
noise improves the signal-to-noise ratio and enhances the
instrument's performance.

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Threshold: The threshold of the transducer is the smallest change in the
measurand that will result in a measureable change in the transducer output. It
sets a lower limit on the measurement capability of a transducer.
Saturation: In a transducer the output is generally proportional to the input.
Sometimes, if the input continues to increase positively or negatively, a point is
reached where the transducer will no longer increase its output for increased
input, giving rise to a non-linear relationship. The region in which the output
does not change with increase in input is called the saturation region.
 Conformance: Conformance indicates closeness of a calibration curve to a
specified curve for an inherently non-linear transducer

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 Dynamic characteristics
 Dynamic characteristics of medical
instruments refer to their behavior or
performance in response to time-varying or
dynamic input signals or conditions.
 These characteristics are essential for
monitoring and measuring dynamic
physiological processes.

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 List of Dynamic characteristics
• Response Time
• Bandwidth
• Frequency Response
• Damping
• Dynamic Range
• Crosstalk
• Transient Response
• Signal-to-Noise Ratio
• Aliasing
• Artifact Rejection

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 Response Time:
Response time is the speed or time it takes for an
instrument to react and provide a meaningful
output when there is a change in the input signal.
It measures the instrument's ability to track rapid
changes in physiological parameters. A fast
response time is crucial for real-time monitoring
and critical care applications.

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 Bandwidth
Bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies
over which an instrument can accurately measure
or reproduce the input signal. It is particularly
relevant for instruments used in measuring
electrical signals from the body, such as
electrocardiography (ECG) or
electroencephalography (EEG). A wide
bandwidth allows for accurate representation of
high-frequency physiological events and signals.

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 Frequency Response
Frequency response characterizes an instrument's
ability to faithfully reproduce or measure signals
of different frequencies without significant
distortion or attenuation. It is crucial for
instruments used in measuring dynamic
physiological signals like respiration rate, blood
pressure variations, or cardiac activity.

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 Damping
Damping refers to the ability of an instrument to
reduce or eliminate oscillations or inherent
vibrations in the measurement system. It is
necessary to ensure accurate and stable
measurements, particularly in instruments that
involve mechanical components or movements.

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 Dynamic Range
Dynamic range represents the span or range of
amplitudes or magnitudes of the input signal that
an instrument can accurately measure or detect.
It measures the instrument's ability to handle
signals that vary significantly in intensity or
amplitude. A wide dynamic range allows for
accurate measurement of both low and high-
intensity physiological events.

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 Crosstalk
Crosstalk refers to the undesired interference or
coupling between different channels or
measurement parameters in a multi-channel
instrument. It can result in distorted or inaccurate
recordings if the signals from adjacent channels
influence each other. Minimizing crosstalk
ensures accurate and isolated measurements from
different physiological sources.

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 Transient Response
Transient response characterizes an instrument's
ability to accurately measure or respond to
sudden changes or transient events in the input
signal. It measures how quickly the instrument
settles down or adjusts to the new input
conditions after a transient disturbance. A good
transient response is essential for tracking sudden
physiological changes or interventions.

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 Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) measures the ratio
between the amplitude or strength of the desired
signal and the background noise or interference
present in the measurement. A high SNR
indicates a stronger signal relative to the noise
level, enabling more accurate and reliable
measurements.

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 Aliasing
Aliasing is an undesirable phenomenon that can
occur when the sampling rate of a digital
instrument is insufficient to accurately represent
the frequency content of the input signal.
Aliasing can result in distorted measurements or
misinterpretation of physiological signals. Proper
consideration of the Nyquist criterion can
prevent aliasing.

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 Artifact Rejection
Artifact rejection refers to the ability of an
instrument to identify and discard or minimize
noise or unwanted signals caused by movement
artifacts, environmental interference, or electrical
noise. Effective artifact rejection enhances the
instrument's accuracy in measuring physiological
signals and enables reliable data analysis

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Problems encountered with measurements from
human beings

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When measuring human beings, there are several
problems that can be encountered, which can
affect the accuracy and reliability of the
measurements. Some common problems include:

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 Motion artifacts
• Human beings are constantly moving, which
can introduce motion artifacts in
measurements. This is particularly relevant for
measurements such as electrocardiography
(ECG), electroencephalography (EEG), or
blood pressure monitoring. Movement artifacts
can distort the signals and affect the accuracy
of the measurements.

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 Noise interference
Measurements from human beings can be
affected by various types of noise interference,
including electrical noise, environmental
interference, or interference from nearby
electrical devices. These noise sources can
corrupt the signals and lead to inaccurate
measurements.

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Variation in physiological parameters
Physiological parameters can vary significantly
among individuals and even within the same
individual at different times. This variability can
make it challenging to establish a baseline or
reference for measurements. It can also lead to
confusion when interpreting the measurements or
identifying abnormal values.

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 Patient discomfort or anxiety
Some measurements may cause discomfort or
anxiety in patients, which can induce
physiological responses that affect the
measurements. For example, a patient's increased
heart rate due to anxiety can lead to inaccurate
readings during blood pressure measurement.

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 Inadequate calibration
Medical instruments need to be regularly
calibrated to ensure accurate measurements.
However, inadequate or improper calibration can
result in measurement errors and inaccuracies.

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 Patient non-compliance
Patient non-compliance refers to situations where
patients do not follow the instructions or
protocols for measurements. For example,
improper placement of electrodes during an ECG
can lead to incorrect readings. Non-compliance
can result in inaccurate measurements and
compromise the reliability of the data.

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 Body positioning or alignment
The positioning or alignment of a patient's body
during measurements can affect the accuracy of
the readings. For example, incorrect posture
during blood pressure measurement can lead to
incorrect values. Maintaining proper positioning
and alignment is necessary to ensure accurate
measurements.

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 Size and body characteristics
Differences in body size, shape, and
characteristics among individuals can impact
how medical instruments fit or interact with the
body. This can affect the accuracy and reliability
of measurements. For example, a blood pressure
cuff that is too small or too large for a patient's
arm may produce inaccurate readings.

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Physiological and pathological conditions
Certain physiological or pathological conditions,
such as cardiac arrhythmias or respiratory
disorders, can complicate measurements and
make it challenging to obtain accurate readings.
These conditions may introduce irregularities or
abnormalities in the measurements

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 User error
Lastly, human error or operator error can contribute to problems
in measurements.
Inadequate training, improper technique,
or misinterpretation of results can lead to errors and affect the
reliability of the measurements.
To mitigate these problems, it is crucial to ensure proper training
of healthcare professionals, use appropriate measurement
techniques, consider individual patient factors, and regularly
calibrate and maintain the medical instruments used for
measurements

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