CHAPTER 5

STATES OF
MATTER
 Contents
4.1 The gaseous state: ideal and real gases and pV = nRT
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 . explain the origin of pressure in a gas in terms of collisions between gas molecules and the wall of
the container
2. understand that ideal gases have zero particle volume and no intermolecular forces of attraction
3. state and use the ideal gas equation pV = nRT in calculations, including in the determination of Mr

4.2 Bonding and structure

Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1. describe, in simple terms, the lattice structure of a crystalline solid which is:
(a) giant ionic, including sodium chloride and magnesium oxide
(b) simple molecular, including iodine, buckminsterfullerene C60 and ice
(c) giant molecular, including silicon(IV) oxide, graphite and diamond
(d) giant metallic, including copper
2 .describe, interpret and predict the effect of different types of structure and bonding on the physical
properties of substances, including melting point, boiling point, electrical conductivity and solubility
3. deduce the type of structure and bonding present in a substance from given information
5.1 States of
matter
• The state of a substance at room temperature and pressure
depends on its structure and bonding

• 4 types of structure are found in elements and compound

• Simple molecular or simple atomic eg: carbon

dioxide, argon

• Giant ionic, eg: sodium chloride

• Giant metallic, eg: iron, copper

• Giant molecular, eg: silicon(IV) oxide

a) Particles in a solid are close together / touching. When a solid changes to a liquid the
particles move slightly further apart but many are still touching. In a solid the particles are
only vibrating. As the temperature is raised, the particles vibrate more until they can move
from place to place by sliding over other particles.

b) Particles in a liquid are close together and many are still touching. As the temperature is
raised they move faster then escape to form a gas, in which the particles are much further
apart. The particles in a liquid are moving slowly over each other but in a gas they move
more rapidly.
 5.2 The gaseous state
The kinetic theory of gaseous
• The kinetic theory of gases states that molecules in gases are
constantly moving

• The theory makes the following assumptions:

-The gas molecules are moving very fast and randomly
-The molecules hardly have any volume
-The gas molecules do not attract or repel each other
(no intermolecular forces)
-No kinetic energy is lost when the gas molecules collide with
each other (elastic collisions)
-The temperature of the gas is related to the average kinetic
energy of the molecules
• Gases that follow the kinetic theory of gases are called ideal gases

• However, in reality gases do not fit this description exactly but may
come very close and are called real gases

• Noble gases with small atoms, such as helium and neon, come close to
ideal gas behaviour. This is because the intermolecular forces are so
small
 Question

2. Why the intermolecular forces in a sample of helium and neon

are very small

Helium and neon atoms are non-polar so the only forces between
them are van der Waals’ forces. There are very few electrons in
each atom so the van der Waals’ forces here are particularly
weak.
 Ideal gases
1. The volume that an ideal gas occupies depends on:

a. Its pressure

b. Its temperature

2. When a gas is heated (at constant pressure) the particles gain

more kinetic energy and undergo more frequent collisions with the
container wall
3. To keep the pressure constant, the molecules must get further apart
and therefore the volume increases
4. The volume is therefore directly proportional to the temperature (at
constant pressure)
Gases in a container exert a pressure as the gas
molecule are constantly colliding with the wall of the
container
The volume of a gas increases upon
heating to keep a constant pressure
volume is directly proportional to the pressure
o Gas in the container exert a pressure

o This is because the gas molecules are constantly hitting he walls of the
containers

o As the volume of gas decreases at constant temperature, its pressure

increases due to the increased frequency of the gas molecule hitting
the wall of the containers
 question

a i 518 K
ii 228 K

b 15 × 103 = 15 000 Pa
 question

At high temperatures the molecules are moving very fast. They

have a lot of kinetic energy. The particles hit the walls of the tube
with a considerable force. If the temperature is too high the force of
the particle hitting the wall may be great enough to break the tube.
 Limitations of the ideal gas law
At very high temperatures and pressures real gases do not obey the
kinetic theory as under these conditions:

a. Molecules are close to each other

b. There are instantaneous dipole- induced dipole or permanent

dipole- permanent dipole forces between the molecules

c. These attractive forces pull the molecules away from the

container wall

d. The volume of the molecules is not negligible

Real gases therefore do not obey the following kinetic
theory assumptions at high temperatures and pressures:

a. There is zero attraction between molecules (due to attractive

forces, the pressure is lower than expected for an ideal gas)

b. The volume of the gas molecules can be ignored (volume of the

gas is smaller than expected for an ideal gas)
 question

a) A gas whose volume varies in proportion to the kelvin

temperature and in inverse proportion to the pressure.

b) Real gases deviate from the ideal gas at high pressures

and low temperatures. This is because, under these
conditions, the molecules are close enough for intermolecular
forces of attraction to pull the molecules towards one another.
The volume of the molecules must also be taken into account.
 Ideal gas equation
The ideal gas equation shows the relationship between pressure,
volume, temperature and number of moles of gas of an ideal gas:

pV = nRT

p = pressure (pascals, Pa)

V = volume (m3)
n = number of moles of gas (mol)
R = gas constant (8.31 J K-1 mol-1)
T = temperature (kelvin, K)
The ideal gas equation can also be used to calculate
the molar mass (Mr) of a gas
 Calculating the volume of a gas

Answer
•Step 1: Rearrange the ideal gas equation to find volume of gas

•Step 2: Calculate the volume the oxygen gas occupies

p = 220 kPa = 220 000 Pa
n = 0.781 mol
R = 8.31 J K-1 mol-1
T = 21 oC = 294 K

= 0.00867 m3
= 8.67 dm3
 Calculating the molar mass of a gas

Answer
Step 3: Calculate the molar mass using the
Step 1: Rearrange the ideal gas equation to find the
number of moles of gas
number of moles of gas

Step 2: Calculate the number of moles of gas

p = 300 kPa = 300 000 Pa
V = 1 dm3 = 0.001 m3
R = 8.31 J K-1 mol-1
T = 23 oC = 296 K
 Exam Tip

Ideal gases have zero particle volume (the particles are really
small) and no intermolecular forces of attraction or repulsion.

To calculate the temperature in Kelvin, add 273 to the Celsius

temperature, eg. 100 oC is 373 Kelvin.

Remember: an ideal gas will have a volume that is directly

proportional to the temperature and inversely proportional to
the pressure.
5.3 THE LIQUID STATE
The behaviour of liquid
When we heat a solid (melting):
-the energy transferred to the solid makes the particle vibrate more
vigorously
-the force of attraction between the particles weaken
-the solid changes to a liquid at its melting point

When we cool a liquid (freezing):

-lose kinetic energy so they do not move around so readily
-experience increasing forces of attraction
-stop slididing fast each other when the temperature is sufficiently low;
the liquid solidifies
Vaporisation and vapour pressure
5.3 The solid state
Lattice Structures

-Most ionic, metallic and covalent compounds are crystalline lattice

-The ions, atoms or molecules are arranged in a regular and repeating
arrangement

Giant ionic lattices

• An ionic bond is an electrostatic force between a positively charged metal
(cation) ion and a negatively charged non-metal (anion) ion

• The metal becomes positively charged as it transfers electrons to the non-

metal becomes negatively charged
• Ionic compounds are arranged in giant ionic lattices (also called giant ionic
structures)
• The type of lattice formed depends on the sizes of
the positive and negative ions which are arranged in an alternating fashion
 Why sodium chloride not considered a molecule?

Ionic lattices of the ionic Build ball-and-stick or space-filling models of sodium

chloride to visualise the structure.
compounds NaCl and MgO View models of the structure:
www.siyavula.com/read/science/grade-10/chemical-bo
nding/06-chemical-bonding-04
Extension activity: Why sodium
chloride is 6:6 coordinated:
www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/structur
es/ionicstruct.html
General ionic lattice which shown
the actual packing of the ions
Covalent lattices
• Covalent bonds are bonds between non-metals in which electrons
are shared between the atoms

• Covalent compounds can be arranged in simple molecular or giant

molecular lattices

• Simple molecular lattices: Iodine, buckminsterfullerene (C 60) and

ice

• Giant molecular: silicon(IV) oxide, graphite and diamond

Additional info:
www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/
structures/giantcov.html

A video comparing the

structure and properties of
graphite and diamond:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=F
eZIIR50XoY
Giant molecular lattices
Metallic lattices
• Metals form giant metallic lattices in which
the metal ions are surrounded by a ‘sea’ of
delocalised electrons

• The metal ions are often packed in

hexagonal layers or in a cubic arrangement

Layers of copper ions (the delocalised

electrons are not shown in the diagram)
Suggest why iodine is a molecular substance consisting of discrete I 2
molecules. ?

Iodine is a volatile molecular crystal. In crystals, iodine molecules I2 are

bound by dispersion forces. Due to their weak nature, iodine crystals
generate easily visible purple vapour with a strong smell.

A rotatable structure of the lattice:

wwwchem.uwimona.edu.jm/courses/CHEM1902/
IC10K_MG_struct_elementsPS.html
Buckminsterfullerene (C60), also has a
simple molecular structure though it is
important to point out to learners

why it is a simple structure, not a giant

structure like the other allotropes of carbon,
diamond and graphite. The molecules are
quite large, but the bonding between them is
still London dispersion forces.
 Effects of Bonding & Structure on
Physical Properties
Different types of structure and bonding have different effects on
the physical properties of substances such as their melting and boiling
points, electrical conductivity and solubility

Ionic bonding & giant ionic lattice structures

• Ionic compounds are strong
• The strong electrostatic forces in ionic compounds keep the ions
strongly together

• They are brittle as ionic crystals can split apart

• Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points

• The strong electrostatic forces between the ions in the lattice act in all directions
and keep them strongly together

• Melting and boiling points increase with charge density of the ions due to the
greater electrostatic attraction of charges

• Mg2+O2- has a higher melting point Na+Cl–

• Ionic compounds are soluble in water as they can form ion – dipole bonds
• Ionic compounds only conduct electricity when molten or in solution

• When molten or in solution, the ions can freely move around and conduct
electricity

• In the solid state they’re in a fixed position and unable to move around
Metallic bonding & giant metallic lattice structures
1. Metallic compounds are malleable

a. When a force is applied, the metal layers can slide

b. The attractive forces between the metal ions and electrons act in all directions

c. So when the layers slide, the metallic bonds are re-formed

d. The lattice is not broken and has changed shape

2. Metallic compounds are strong and hard

a. Due to the strong attractive forces between the metal ions and delocalised electrons
3. Metals have high melting and boiling points

4. Pure metals are insoluble in water

5. Metals can conduct electricity when in the solid or liquid state

As both in the solid and liquid state there are mobile electrons which can
freely move around and conduct electricity

Metals are malleable as the layers can slide over each and reform
Covalent bonding & simple covalent lattice structures
1. Simple covalent lattices have low melting and boiling points

a. These compounds have weak intermolecular forces between the

molecules

b. Only little energy is required to break the lattice

2. Most compounds are insoluble with water

a. Unless they are polar (such as HCl) or can form hydrogen bonds
(such as NH3)

3. They do not conduct electricity in the solid or liquid state as there are no
charged particles

a. Some simple covalent compounds to conduct electricity in solution

such as HCl which forms H+ and Cl– ions
Covalent bonding & giant covalent lattice structures

1. Giant covalent lattices have melting and boiling points

a. These compounds have a large number of covalent bonds linking the whole
structure intermolecular forces between the molecules

b. A lot of energy is required to break the lattice

2. The compounds can be hard or soft

a. Graphite is soft as the forces between the carbon layers are weak

b. Diamond and silicon(IV) oxide are hard as it is difficult to break their 3D

network of strong covalent bonds
3. Most compounds are insoluble with water
4. Most compounds do not conduct electricity however some do

a. Graphite has delocalised electrons between the carbon layers

which can move along the layers when a voltage is applied

b. Diamond and silicon(IV) oxide do not conduct electricity as all

four outer electrons on every carbon atom is involved in
a covalent bond so there are no free electrons available
example
Answer
The correct answer is 4

The relatively high melting point, solubility in water and electrical

conductivity when molten suggest that X is a giant ionic structure.

The low melting point of Y suggests that little energy is needed to break the
lattice which corresponds to a simple molecular structure. This is further
supported by the low electrical conductivity and its being almost insoluble
in water.

Compound Z has a very high melting point which is characteristic of either

metallic or giant molecular lattices, however since it conducts electricity,
compound Z must be a giant metallic lattice.
 Thank
s!
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