CHAPTER-7

EVOLUTION
 Synopsis
• Origin of Life
• Evolution of Life Forms - A Theory
• What are the Evidences for Evolution?
• What is Adaptive Radiation?
• Biological Evolution
• Mechanism of Evolution
• Hardy - Weinberg Principle
• A Brief Account of Evolution
• Origin and Evolution of Man
 What do you mean by Evolution?
Evolution means ‘a gradual change over a
period of time’.

Evolutionary Biology is ‘the study of

history of life forms’.
 ORIGIN OF
LIFE
ON EARTH

THEORIES
OF ORIGIN
OF LIFE
All the different forms of life that occur today
on planet earth have been created by God,
the almighty.
 According to
this theory, a
huge explosion
occurs that
forms the
different
galaxies.
EARTH WAS
FORMED 4.5 BILLION
YEARS AGO
LIFE WAS FORMED
4 BILLION YEARS
AGO
According to other theory, life comes
out of dead and decaying matters
like straw and mud. This theory is
called theory of spontaneous origin.

ARISTOTLE
Greek philosopher
(384-322 BC).
 SWAN NECKED FLASK
LOUIS PASTEUR EXPERIMENT

Life comes into existence only from pre-existing life.

 This idea was proposed by
Richter in 1865 and
supported by
Arrhenius (1908)
and other scientists.

Life has reached Earth from other planets and

heavenly bodies such as meteorites, in the
form of highly resistant spores of some
organisms.
Early Greek philosophers believed in this and
it is still a favorite theory of Astronomers.
 THEORY OF CHEMICAL EVOLUTION
OF LIFE

First form of life could have

OPARIN (of Russia)
& come from pre-existing non-
HALDANE (of England)
living organic molecules like
RNA and protein etc. The
formation of life preceded by
chemical evolution. At that time
condition on earth were- high
temperature, volcanic eruption,
reducing atmosphere
containing CH4and NH3.
 Conditions on the primitive earth

High temperature on earths surface.

Atmosphere had nitrogen in the form of ammonia (NH3)
Carbon in the form of methane (CH4) and Carbon dioxide
(CO2)
Oxygen in the form of water vapours (H2O)
Hydrogen (H2)
As the earth cooled down, it
developed a solid crust.

Water collected in the depressions,

dissolved the minerals and finally
formed large sized water bodies
called oceans.

Simple organic compounds like

alcohols, aldehydes, glycerol, fatty
acids, purines, pyrimidines, simple
sugars and amino acids.

They formed by the process of

condensation and polymerisation.
Simple organic compounds
showed chance chemical
reactions and
polymerisation to finally
form complex organic
compounds like
polysaccharides, fats,
nucleotides, nucleic acids,
polypeptides etc.

The energy for these

photochemical reactions
was provided by
Volcanic eruptions
Solar radiations (UV-rays)
Electrical energy produced
during lightning,
The first non cellular forms of life
could have been formed 3
billion years back.
Primitive atmosphere, reducing type.

High temperature, lightening and uv

radiations provided energy required for
chemical reactions

First living beings arose from simple

inorganic and organic compounds.
The first cellular forms of life originated about 2,000 million
years ago.
They gave rise to Monerans and Protistans which evolved to
give rise to higher forms.
Stanley Miller’s experiment(1953)
Provided experimental evidence for chemical
evolution.
(i) The experiment was carried out by SL
Miller and HC Urey in 1953.
(ii) He took a closed flask containing
CH4,H2,NH3 and water vapour at 800°C and
created electric discharge. These conditions
were similar to those in primitive atmosphere.
(iii) After a week, formation of amino acids
were observed. Complex molecules like
sugars, nitrogen bases, pigments and fats
were seen in the flask by other scientist.
(iv) Analysis of the meteorite also revealed
the presence of similar compounds.
(v) Chemical evolution of life was more or
less accepted.
 Origin of First Cell
(i) First non-cellular life forms originated three million years
ago.
(ii) These molecules were like RNA, protein and
polysaccharides.
(iii) Cellular life form first evolved about 2000 million years
ago.
(iv) These were single-celled formed in aquatic environment.
(v) This form of abiogenesis, i.e. the first form of life arose
slowly through evolutionary
forces from non-living molecules It is accepted by many
scientists.
CHARLES DARWIN

THEORY OF NATURAL Alfred Russell Wallace

SELECTION (working in Malay
Archipelago)
 Darwin’s Interpretation

• Existing life forms share similarities to varying degrees not

only among themselves but also with the life forms that
existed millions of years ago.
• Many such life forms do not exist any more.
• There have been extinctions of different life forms in the
years gone by.
• New forms arose at different periods in the history of earth.
• THERE HAS BEEN GRADUAL EVOLUTION OF LIFE FORMS
 Darwinism / Theory of Natural
Selection
• Any population has built in variations in characteristics.
(VARIATIONS)

• Those characteristics which enable some to survive better in

natural conditions ( Climate, food, physical factors etc.)
would outbreed others those who are less endowed to
survive under such natural conditions. ( SURVIVAL OF THE
FITTEST)
• The fitness refers to reproductive fitness.
• Those who are better fit in an environment leave behind
more progeny than others.
• These therefore survive more and hence are selected by
nature.
• HE CALLED THIS NATURAL SELECTION AND IMPLIED IT AS A
MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION.

All existing life forms share similarities and hence share

common ancestors.

These ancestors were present at different periods in the history

of the earth( epochs, periods and eras).

THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF EARTH CLOSELY CORRELATES

WITH THE BIOLOGICAL HISTORY OF EARTH.
DARWIN’S
GIRAFFE

SHOWING

VARIATIONS

AND

SURVIVAL
OF THE
FITTEST
 WHAT ARE THE EVIDENCES FOR
EVOLUTION?
1. Paleontological Evidences
2. Comparative Anatomy and Morphology
3. Biochemical similarities
4. Comparative Embryology
5.Evidences for Evolution by Natural Selection
6.Evidences for evolution by anthropogenic action
 1. Paleontological evidences
Fossils are the remains of past organisms (extinct)
in rocks.
Fossil remains predominantly appear in
sedimentary rocks.
They may include entire organisms, hard skeletal
structures, moulds, casts, impressions and
imprints.
Study of fossils is called palaeontology.
• Study of fossils in different sedimentary layers
indicates the geological period in which they
existed.

• The study showed that life forms varied over

time and certain life forms are restricted to
certain geological time spans.

• New forms of life have arisen at different

times in the history of earth.
 2. Comparative Anatomy and
Morphology
• Shows similarities and differences among organisms
of today and those that existed in the past.

• The similarities can be interpreted to understand if

common ancestors existed or not.

• HOMOLOGY INDICATES COMMON ANCESTORY

 Homology / Divergent evolution
Organs having similar anatomical structure but
adapted to perform different functions are called
homologous organs.
• Similarities in the pattern of
bones of Forelimbs.

•Forelimbs perform different

functions in these mammals but
have similar anatomical
structure( humerus, radius, ulna,
carpals, metacarpals and
phalanges)

Fore limbs of •The forelimbs of these mammals

Human, Cheetah, Whale, Bat are said to be homologous
organs.
 Thorns of Bougainvillea and
Tendrils of Cucurbita are
homologous to each other-
both have similar origin but
perform different functions

HOMOLOGOUS
ORGANS IN PLANTS

Homologous organs are as a result of divergent evolution

Same structure evolving in different directions due to
adaptations to perform different functions.
 Analogy / Convergent evolution
Organs having different anatomical structure but adapted
to perform similar function are called analogous organs

They are anatomically

different
(in butterfly- outgrowth of
integument while in birds-
modified forelimbs)
but perform the same
function- help in flight.
 They are structurally different
(Sweet potato is modified root
while potato is modified
underground stem)
but both perform same
function-storage of food.
Sweet potato and Potato
Analogous organs are as a result of convergent evolution

Different structures evolving to perform same function.

This is due to the selection of similar adaptive features for

the same habitat in different organisms .
3. Biochemical Similarities
 4.Comparative Embryology
• It was proposed by Ernst Heckel
based on the observation of
certain features during the
embryonic stage common to all
vertebrates that are absent in
adults. For example, the embryos
of all vertebrates including
humans develop a row of vestigial
gill slits just behind the head but
it is a functional organ only in fish
and not found in any other adult
vertebrates.
5. Evidences for Evolution by Natural
Selection
 Industrial melanism
1850s
BEFORE
INDUSTRIALIZATION
IN ENGLAND

Prior to industrialization

When the moths rested on tree trunks covered with Lichens, the
melanic forms were easily spotted on the light back ground and
were picked up by the predators thus keeping their number less.

The White winged moth were not easily spotted ( their variation
was an advantage) and easily escaped from the predators and
their number was higher.
 Industrial melanism
1920s
AFTER
INDUSTRIALIZATION
IN ENGLAND

After industrialization
When the moths rested on dark tree trunks covered soot
and smoke, the white winged moths were easily spotted
on the dark back ground and were picked up by the
predators . Their number decreased.
The dark winged moth were not easily spotted ( their
variation was an advantage) and easily escaped from the
predators and their numbers increased drastically.
In rural areas, where instrutralization did not occur,
there were no changes observed in the proportion
of White winged moths. Their number remained
high as earlier.

This showed that in a mixed population, those that

can better adapt, survive and increase in population
size.
 6.Evidences for evolution by
anthropogenic action

● Overuse of DDT, to kill mosquitoes ultimately

resulted in the evolution of a resistant variety of
mosquitoes towards DDT.
● Overuse of antibiotics has resulted in the
evolution of a resistant variety of bacteria.
● Overuse of weedicides and pesticides has
resulted in the evolution of a resistant variety of
weeds and pests respectively.
 6.Evidences for evolution by
anthropogenic action

DRUG / ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE PESTICIDE RESISTANCE IN

IN MICROBES INSECTS
HMS Beagle (1831-1836)
Adaptive radiation- Adaptive radiation is
the evolutionary process by which many
species originate from one species in an
area and radiate to different species.
Types – Divergent evolution
Convergent evolution
 Examples are - Darwin’s
finches These were small
black birds, which Darwin
observed in Galapagos island.
• (a) He observed many
varieties of finches in the
same island.
• (b) All varieties of finches had
evolved from original seed-
eating finches.
• (c) There was alternation in
beaks enabling some to
become insectivorous and
some vegetarian.
 Divergent evolution
A number of marsupials occur in Australia, each
different from the other, evolved from common
ancestors within the Australian continent.
 Convergent evolution is when two different species with
different ancestors tend to develop similar traits during
the course of evolution.
BRACHING DESCENDS
According to
Darwin,
a)Evolution is a
gradual process
and not sudden.
Branching descent
and natural
selection are two
key concepts of
Darwinian theory
of evolution.
• Charles Robert Darwin
 Evolution of Life Forms - A Theory

Jean Baptist De Lamarck

Evolution of life forms

is driven by use and
disuse of organs
 LAMARK’S GIRAFFE

Theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics. He

believed that the characteristics an individual gains
during his life time are passed on to the next generation.
This theory is not accepted by the scientific world
THOMAS MALTHUS INCREASED POPULATION …
FACTS ABOUT NATURAL SELCTION

Certain facts
1. Natural resources are
limited
2. The size of population
is stable except for
seasonal fluctuations
3. There are variation in
the characteristics of
members
 MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION
De Vries believed that it is Mutation that causes speciation.

1. His work on evening primrose

brought forth the idea of mutation.
Mutation is the large difference
arising suddenly in a population.
2. Mutations are random and
directionless while Darwin variations
are small and directional.
3. Hugo deVries believed that mutation
causes speciation and hence called
saltation (single step large mutation).
 HARDY- WEINBERG PRINCIPLE
British Mathematician G.Hardy and
German Physicist W. Weinberg
independently studied the
relationship between allele
frequencies and genotypes in
populations.
The relationship known as Hardy-Weinberg
Principle states that ‘the frequency of
dominant and recessive alleles in a population
will remain constant from generation to
generation unless it is altered by external
factors’. This genetic stability is called Hardy-
Weinberg equilibrium.
Gene Pool – A gene pool is the total variety of genes and their
alleles present in a sexually reproducing population.
Allele Frequency – Frequency of appearance of a particular allele in
a gene pool.
Hardy-Weinberg equation – It provides a simple mathematical
model to calculate allele and genotype frequencies in a sexually
reproducing population.

p + q= 1
Here, p is the frequency of appearance of dominant allele (say A)
and q is the frequency of appearance of recessive allele ( a ). The
sum total of all the allelic frequencies is 1 indicating genetic
equilibrium.
Similarly,

p2+2pq+q2= 1

Where p2 is the frequency of appearance of homozygous

dominant genotype (AA) and 2pq is the frequency of
appearance of heterozygous genotype (Aa) and q2 is the
frequency of appearance of homozygous recessive genotype
(aa).

Disturbance in genetic equilibrium, or Hardy- Weinberg

equilibrium, i.e., change in the frequency of alleles in a
population would then be interpreted as resulting in evolution.
 Factors affecting Hardy- Weinberg equilibrium:
a) Gene flow (Gene Migration)- Transfer of genes from one gene
pool to another. This occurs when immigrants (those who enter a
population) add new genes to the gene pool.
b) Genetic Drift –It is the change in a gene frequency just by a matter
of chance.
c) Mutation – Mutation is a sudden change in the genetic makeup of
an individual. They are considered as raw materials of evolution.
d) Genetic recombination - Genetic recombination is the process
by which two DNA molecules exchange genetic information,
resulting in the production of a new combination of alleles.
e) Natural selection- Nature acts as a force in selecting the fittest
that would survive and reproduce. This is called natural selection.
 Founder effect
Sometimes the change in the allele frequency is so different in small
population of a species has moved to an area that is sufficiently
distant or physically isolated from the original population, that they
become a different species.

The originally drifted population becomes founder population. This

change in allelic frequency due to the creation of a new, isolated
population is called the founder effect.
 STABALIZING

DIRECTIONAL

DISRUPTIVE

Diagrammatic representation of operation of natural

selection on different traits
A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION
Representative evolutionary history of vertebrates through geological periods
Origin and Evolution of Man / Human

CRO MAGNON
THANK YOU