SENSORY SYSTEMS

Alex Imalingat OJ
Learning objectives
• Explain the sequence of events in a receptor.
• Describe the function of various receptor types.
• Explain how sensory receptors function to deliver information to
the brain.
• Categorize sensory receptors according to five types of stimuli.
• Discuss the function of proprioceptors.
• Relate specific sensory receptors in the skin to particular senses
of the skin.
What is a sensory system?
• A sensory system is a part of the nervous system, consisting of:
• sensory receptors - that receive stimuli from the internal and external
environment
• neural pathways - that conduct this information to the brain
• parts of the brain that process this information
• The information is called sensory information
• may or may not lead to conscious awareness
• If it does it is called sensation.
Function of the sensory system
• The main function of the sensory nervous system is to inform the
central nervous system about stimuli impinging on us from the
outside or within us.
• By doing so, it informs us about any changes in the internal and
external environment.
• The central nervous system integrates the sensory information and
communicates the information to target organs in our body.
• Therefore, a given sensory system comprises receptor cells in
sense organs, neurons that project from sense organs to the brain,
and specific brain areas that process the afferent information
coming from the periphery.
General organization of sensory
systems
• Conduction of the physical stimulus to the receptors
• Sensory receptors
• Sensory nerves
• Central nervous system
sensory systems
• Sensory systems include:
• visual,
• auditory,
• gustatory (taste),
• olfactory (smell),
• somatosensory (touch, pain, temperature, and proprioception),
• and vestibular (balance, spatial orientation) systems.
Receptors and Sensations
• Sensory receptors detect changes in the environment and
stimulate neurons to send nerve impulses to the brain.
• A sensation is formed based on the sensory input.
• Each receptor is more sensitive to a specific kind of
environmental change but is less sensitive to others.
Sensations
• Sensations are feelings that occur when the brain interprets
sensory impulses.
• At the same time the sensation is being formed, the brain uses
projection to send the sensation back to its point of origin so
the person can pinpoint the area of stimulation.
sensory systems
• Each sensory system begins with a receptor cell and its primary
afferent neuron that makes specific connections with other
nerve fibers.
• The groups of neuronal fibers, and the nuclei that relay
this peripheral information into and throughout the central
nervous system, define the sensory system.
• These neurons are essentially tuned to a specific sensory
energy.
• It is this specificity that defines the sensation.
sensory system cont’d
• The initiation of a receptor response is dependent on an adequate stimulus,
• A specific stimulus is needed to initiate a response in a specific sensory
receptor.
• The process whereby a stimulus energy is converted into the electrochemical
energy occurs at the level of the receptor cell and is known as transduction.
• This conversion process allows for the coding of the sensory stimulus by the
nervous system. The initiation of a response is dependent on four factors:
modality, intensity, location, and timing.
• The type of stimulus energy (sound, light, etc.), and the specificity of the
receptors needed to sense that energy defines the modality.
• The intensity of a perceived stimulus at the cellular level is reflected in how
long and fast the neurons fire, and how many neurons are firing.
• Thus, timing plays a role in this process, because an increase in stimulus rate
results in an increase in firing rate, while an increase in stimulus amplitude
results in an increase in receptor potential.
sensory system cont’d
• Stimulation of the receptor cells occurs at a local level and is
the result of a passive flow of current.
• Stimulation of the neurons is dependent on reaching the
threshold necessary to generate an action potential in the many
neurons that encode and relay a signal to and throughout the
central nervous system.
• The generation of action potentials will generate a sensation
depending on the strength of the stimulus.
sensory system cont’d
• The presence of an appropriate stimulus triggers
electrochemical changes in the nervous system.
• This stimulus typically changes the membrane potential of a
sensory neuron, triggering an action potential.
• The information is then transmitted from the sensory organ to
the spinal cord and then the brain, or directly to the brain (as in
the visual system).
sensory system cont’d
• The different types of sensory information (modalities) travel in
different pathways through the central nervous system,
• But most are transmitted to the thalamus—a structure in the
middle of the brain.
• From thalamus, sensory information is sent to the cerebral cortex
dedicated to analysis of specific modalities—for instance, primary
visual cortex or primary auditory cortex.
• These areas, in turn, send information to the association cortex,
where sensory information is integrated with other types of
information for higher-level analysis, for accurate perception of
sensory stimuli (identity and location etc).
OVERVIEW OF SENSATIONS
Definition of a Sensation
• Must meet four conditions:
• stimulus or change in environment, activate certain sensory neurons
• form of light, heat, pressure, mechanical energy, or chemical energy
• sensory receptor must convert stimulus to electrical signal which
produces one or more nerve impulses if it is large enough
• nerve impulses must be conducted along a neural pathway from
sensory receptor to brain
• region of brain must receive and integrate nerve impulses into a
sensation
Characteristics of Sensations
• Perceptions: conscious sensation
• “eyes see” ; specialized sensory neurons integrated in cerebral cortex
where they are interpreted
• Adaptation: a decrease in strength of a sensation due to
prolonged stimulus which may lead to perceptions fading or
disappearing even though stimulus persists
Types of Sensory Receptors
• Free nerve endings
• Encapsulated nerve endings
• Mechanoreceptors
• Thermoreceptors
• Nociceptors
• Photoreceptors
• Chemoreceptors
Sensory receptors in the skin and
subcutaneous layer
Sensory receptors in the skin and
subcutaneous layer
a. Meissner corpuscles (Corpuscles of touch)
b. Pacinian corpuscles (Lamellated corpuscles)
c. Ruffini corpuscles (Type II cutaneous mechanoreceptors)
d. Merkel Disks (Type I cutaneous mechanoreceptors)
e. Hair Root Plexuses
f. Free nerve Endings
SOMATIC SENSES
Tactile Sensations (Mechanoreceptors)
Touch, pressure, vibration
-- Detected by encapsulated nerve endings
Itch, and tickle
-- Detected by free nerve endings
SOMATIC SENSES…continued
• Touch
• rapidly adapting touch receptors:
• Corpuscles of touch (Meissner corpulses)_
• Hair root plexuses_
• slowly adapting touch receptors:
• Type I cutaneous mechanoreceptors (Merkel disks)
• Type II cutaneous mechanoreceptors (Ruffini corpulses)

• Pressure and Vibration

• pressure is a sustained sensation felt over a larger area than touch
• Pressure receptors:: Type I mechanoreceptors and lamellated (pacinian) corpulses
• lower frequency vibrations: corpulses of touch
• higher frequency vibrations: lamellated corpulses

• Itch and tickle

• Itch sensations stimulated by stimulation of free nerve endings by certain chemicals like bradykinin, often a result
of local inflammatory response
Thermal Sensations
(Thermoreceptors)
• Thermoreceptors: free nerve endings
• Thermal sensations: coldness and
warmth
• Temperatures between 10 and 40C
(50-105F)
• activate cold receptors
• located in the epidermis
• Temperatures between 32 and 48C
(90- 118F)
• activate warm receptors
• located in the dermis
• Below 10C and above 48C stimulate
• nociceptors
• produce painful sensations
Painful Sensations (Nociceptors)
• Nociceptors: free nerve endings
• Found in almost every tissue of body except brain
• Five stimuli that can cause pain
• excessive stimulus of sensory receptors
• bright light in your eyes
• excessive stretching of structure
• prolonged muscle contractions
• hold weight for a long time
• inadequate blood flow to organ
• certain chemical substances
• Referred pain: pain felt in skin above or located near but not in organ
• Fast pain: within 0.1 seconds of stimulus; acute, sharp, or prickling pain; localized not in
deep tissue
• Slow pain: begins a second or more after stimulus is applied; chronic burning, aching,
throbbing; skin deep tissue and internal organs
Proprioceptive Sensations
(Proprioceptors)
• Inform you consciously and unconsciously of
• degree to which your muscles are contracted
• amount of tension present in your tendons
• positions of your joints
• orientation of your head
• Receptors for these sensations called:
• Proprioreceptors and are located in:
• skeletal muscles, tendons, in and around synovial joints, and in inner ear
• They adapt slowly and only slightly

• Kinesthesia: perception of body movements, allows you to walk, type,

or dress without using your eyes
Sensory Transduction
• A physical stimulus generates a receptor potential
• The receptor potential is a graded potential
• The receptor potential is conducted electronically to the spike
generation site.
Sensory Adaptation
1. During sensory adaptation, sensory impulses are
sent at decreasing rates until receptors fail to send impulses
unless there is a change in strength of the stimulus
Special Senses
A. The special senses are associated with fairly large and
complex structures located in the head.
B. These include the senses of smell, taste, hearing, static
equilibrium, dynamic equilibrium, and sight.
Neural Pathways in Sensory Systems
• A single afferent neuron with all its receptor endings makes a
sensory unit.
• When stimulated, the portion of the body that leads to activity in
a particular afferent neuron is called the receptive field of that
neuron.
• Afferent neurons enter the CNS, diverge and synapse upon
many interneurons.
• These afferent neurons are called sensory or ascending pathways
• They are called specific ascending pathways if they carry
information about a single type of stimulus.
• The ascending pathways reach the cerebral cortex on the side
opposite to where their sensory receptors are located.
Neural Pathways in Sensory Systems
• Specific ascending pathways that transmit information from somatic
receptors and taste buds go to the somatosensory cortex (parietal
lobe), the ones from eyes go to the visual cortex (occipital lobe),
and the ones from ears go to the auditory cortex (temporal lobe).
• Olfaction is NOT represented in the cerebral cortex.
• Nonspecific ascending pathways consist of polymodal neurons and
are activated by sensory units of several types. These pathways are
important in alertness and arousal.
• Cortical association areas, lying outside primary cortical sensory
areas, participate in a more complex analysis of incoming
information such as comparison, memory, language, motivation,
emotion, etc.
Primary Sensory Coding
Sensory systems code 4 aspects of a stimulus:
1. Stimulus Type (modality). All receptors of a single afferent neuron are
sensitive to the same type of stimulus.
2. Stimulus Intensity. An increased stimulus results in a larger receptor
potential, leading to a higher frequency of action potential, and recruit a
larger number of receptors.
3. Stimulus Location. Coded by the site of the stimulated receptor. The
response is highest at the center of the receptive field since receptor density
is the highest there.
4. Stimulus Duration. Rapid adapting receptors respond rapidly at the onset
of stimulus but slow down or stop firing during the remainder of a stimulus.