Remote i c E nginee ring

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m G e ode sy and G
Sensing Study Prog
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E a r th a n
Faculty of
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 L I D A R A N D I T S A P P L I C AT I O N F O R I M P R O V I N G E X I S T I N G
C U LT U R A L H E R I TA G E S I T E S D E T E C T I O N T E C H N I Q U E , C O M B I N E D
W I T H G E O M E T R I C M E A S U R E S A N D H Y P E R S P E C T R A L D ATA

INTRODUCTION Vegetation Mapping

OUTLINE
Concepts Shoreline Analysis
History Volumetric Studies
Several Key Definitions Landslide Analysis
Transmission-Line Studies
Route Mapping
LIDAR DATA ACQUISITION Cellular Networks
Flight Planning LIDAR Applications for Improving Existing
Mobilization Heritage Sites Detection Technique
Instrument Installation Introduction
System Calibration LIDAR Data
Flight Mission - LIDAR Geometric Data
Field Verification - LIDAR Intensity Data
Post-Processing Hyperspectral Data
Mass-Point Generation - Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
Additional Information about Flying - MIVIS Hyperspectral Data
Parameters - AISA Hyperspectral Data
Data Integration
QUALITY CONTROL Aquileia Case Study
Potential Source of Error - LIDAR Data Processing
Keys to a Successful Lidar Project - MIVIS Data Processing
- AISA Data Processing
LIDAR APPLICATIONS Conclusions and Future Perspective
Contour Mapping
3D Perspective Analysis SOURCES AND REFERENCES
Floodplain Mapping
 a LIDAR coll
ection system
uses a powerfu
comprised of : l laser sensor
INTRO-
 A transm
DUCTION itter and a rece
iver
 A geod
etic-quality

CONCEPTS
Global Posi
(GPS) receiver tioning Syst
em
 An Iner
tial Navigatio
n System (INS
)

The technology resembles that is

Light Detection and Ranging laser sensor
used by radar sensors by which a T he
the
(LIDAR) over recent years has c is io n - m ounted to
device emits energy and then pre ft
become widely accepted as an s id e o f an aircra
measures the time it takes to under
n e)
input tool for generating c o p te r or airpla
travel to a target and return to a (h eli
ting
extremely accurate terrain model il a r to the moun
collector and at the same time sim l
that are used in a variety of p re cis ion aeria
compensates for the movement of of a
camera.
Geographic Information System
the aircraft and the sensor. mapping
(GIS) applications. This
presentation provides an Most LIDAR systems use a scanning mirror to generate a swath of
overview of LIDAR technology light pulses. The swath depends on the mirror’s angle of oscillation
and its several practical and the ground-point density depends on such factors as aircraft
applications, especially for its use speed, system capability for emiting pulses of light, and mirror
in archaeological sites detection. oscillation rate.
 1990s
1980s
INTRO-

late
DUCTION

1960s
an to be
The technology Technology beg
h as b e en remote sensing
used for atmosp adopted by the etric
studies, volume
heric and photogramm
applied to
HISTORY

analysis, and m
tric community and
ase
composition an
aterial- geospatial datab
jects.
alysis. development pro

A R pi l o t
D g
e a r ly LI mappin
he te d .
s t u d i es a o m e of t GIS-rela nducted
S
nd t t s for s were co
with usin ests concerned j e c
pro lication
g l as er sy
o b t a i n al s a pp
t i m e t ry i n t e m s t o
f o rm a t i o
n.
 AIRBORNE GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

TO
SEVERAL KEY DEFINITIONS APPLICABLE
DATA
ACQUIRING, PROCESSING AND UTILIZING LIDAR
Te c h n o l o g y that computes the x, y , and z coordinate

information from the air in relation to one or more base

stations on the ground. AGPS sensors are used for

photogrammetric and LIDAR data-acquisition activities

GAMBAR
 BARE EARTH

TO
SEVERAL KEY DEFINITIONS APPLICABLE
DATA
ACQUIRING, PROCESSING AND UTILIZING LIDAR
Digital elevation data of the terrain, free from vegetation,

buildings, and other man-made structures.

Bare earth data may be modeled as a DEM or a DTM

GAMBAR
 BREAKLINE

TO
SEVERAL KEY DEFINITIONS APPLICABLE
DATA
ACQUIRING, PROCESSING AND UTILIZING LIDAR
A linear feature that describes a change in smoothness or

continuity of a surface

Breaklines are typically captured along road edges and along

hydrographic features to assist with the accurate depiction of

contours
 D I G I TA L E L E VAT I O N M O D E L ( D E M )

TO
SEVERAL KEY DEFINITIONS APPLICABLE
DATA
ACQUIRING, PROCESSING AND UTILIZING LIDAR
An acronym used as a generic term for digital topographic

data

Often reffered to as bare-earth elevations at regularly

spaced intervals

GAMBAR

LIDaR without breaklines LIDaR with supplemental breaklines

 D I G I TA L S U R FA C E M O D E L ( D S M )

TO
SEVERAL KEY DEFINITIONS APPLICABLE
DATA
ACQUIRING, PROCESSING AND UTILIZING LIDAR
Elevation data set containing accurate x , y, and z

coordinates of all the LIDAR system returns

A DSM contains all the topographic, planimetric, and

vegetative informations of the area

A DSM typically also contains surface features such as cars

and trucks present when the laser scanning took place

GAMBAR
 D I G I TA L T E R A I N M O D E L ( D T M )

TO
SEVERAL KEY DEFINITIONS APPLICABLE
DATA
ACQUIRING, PROCESSING AND UTILIZING LIDAR
Similar to a DEM but incorporates significant topographic

features on the land as well as mass points and breaklines

that are irregularly spaced to better characterize the shape

of the terrain
 INERTIAL MEASUREMENT UNIT (IMU)

TO
SEVERAL KEY DEFINITIONS APPLICABLE
DATA
ACQUIRING, PROCESSING AND UTILIZING LIDAR
Te c h n o l o g y t h a t c o m p u t e s t h e r o l l , p i t c h , a n d h e a d i n g o f a

moving object, for example, a LIDAR sensor or an aerial

camera

IMU of French IRBM S3

 LIGHT DETECTION AND RANGING (LIDAR)

TO
SEVERAL KEY DEFINITIONS APPLICABLE
DATA
ACQUIRING, PROCESSING AND UTILIZING LIDAR
A technology that employs an airborne scanning laser finder

to produce accurate topographic surveys

Also known as Airborne Laser Swath Mapping (ALSM)

LIDAR System
 LIDAR INTENSITY

TO
SEVERAL KEY DEFINITIONS APPLICABLE
DATA
ACQUIRING, PROCESSING AND UTILIZING LIDAR
The strength of the light pulse being observed

Intensity readings can be used to produce raster image files

that serves as image maps or that can be stored as intensity

values for each point being measured

Colour infrared aerial imagery (2007) LIDAR intensity data (2008)

The paved paths in the golf course, while visible in the aerial imagery, are much more
easily distinguished in the LiDAR intensity image.
 LIDAR P ULSE RATE

TO
SEVERAL KEY DEFINITIONS APPLICABLE
DATA
ACQUIRING, PROCESSING AND UTILIZING LIDAR
Ty p i c a l l y r e f f e r e d t o a s t h e n u m b e r o f l i g h t p u l s e s e m m i t e d

per second in a scanning array

Pulse rates for various sensors typically range from 5.000

to 50.000 pulses per second

The number of signals received per pulse

Some LIDAR sensors are capable of receiving up to five

returns per pulse.

Ty p i c a l l y, t h e f i r s t a n d t h e l a s t r e t u r n s a r e m o s t c o m m o n l y

used for mapping applications.

The first return measures the first object observed. The

later return usually measure the ground unless an

obstruction (tree,car) obscures penetration to the ground

 LIDAR RETURNS

TO
SEVERAL KEY DEFINITIONS APPLICABLE
DATA
ACQUIRING, PROCESSING AND UTILIZING LIDAR
In a waveform lidar, the entire return pulse is digitized and recorded. In a
discrete multiple-return lidar, only the peaks would be recorded.
 (TIN)
T R I A N G U L AT E I R R E G U L A R N E T W O R K

TO
SEVERAL KEY DEFINITIONS APPLICABLE
DATA
ACQUIRING, PROCESSING AND UTILIZING LIDAR
A set of adjacent, nonoveprlapping triangles computed

f ro m i r re g u l a r l y s p a c e d p o i n t s w i t h x , y, a n d z c o o r d i n a t e

values

A TIN model is used to create a surface and may be

preferable to a DEM or DTM when it is critical to preserve

the location of narrow or small surface features

SEVERAL KEY DEFINITIONS APPLICABLE
TO
ACQUIRING, PROCESSING AND UTILIZING LIDAR
DATA
VOIDS
Portions of a digital elevation data set where no elevation

data are available

The LIDAR data – acquisition process is similar
to that used for aerial photography acquisition

LIDAR DATA ACQ UISIT IO N

Flight
Mobilization Instrument
Planning
Installation

Field Flight Calibratio

Mission n
Ve r i f i c a t i o n

les
Mass Deliverab
Post - g
Point Processin
Processing Generation
FLIGHT PLANNING

LIDAR DATA ACQ UISIT IO N

The key parameters addressed in flight planning are the accuracy requirements and
the area of the coverage.
Flight planning parameters also include flying height, amount of overlap, and
planing for cross strips to verify accuracy

MOBILIZATION
This includes mobilization of aircraft, sensors, and field operations staff to the
project site
Mobilization usually begins at an airport in close proximity to the project area

INSTRUMENT INSTALLATION
This involves installing the LIDAR system in the aircraft, which may be undertaken
before or after mobilization to the project site
SYSTEM CALIBRATION

LIDAR DATA ACQ UISIT IO N

-Should be performed each time a LIDAR system has been removed from and
reinstalled in an aircraft
-Essentialy involves calibrating the sensor using survet techniques to define the
geometric relationship between the sensor, aircraft with AGPS, and inertial
measurement

FLIGHT MISSION
-Includes actual flying and initialization of the LIDAR and AGPS sensors
-Data is typically flown in strips (or swaths)

FIELD VERIFICATION
-Should be integrated into the collection process and should supplement any
independent checks completed after the LIDAR data is processed
POST PROCESSING

LIDAR DATA ACQ UISIT IO N

-Involves processing the LIDAR data along with the AGPS information and IMU
data to derive the surface model

MASS POINT GENERATION

-Mass points and other supplemental products are derived from the processed
imagery

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ABOUT FLYING PARAMETERS

-Cloud cover -Time conditions
-Flight clearance issues -Time of day
-Safety issues -Weather condition
-Tidal conditions
 POTENTIAL SOURCE OF ERROR

Q UALITY
Because a LIDAR project involves the synchronization of technology, it is
important to be aware of the stage of a project where error can occur

C
Every stage from planning to deliveri has potential error opportunities.

ONTROL The following is a list of the primary areas of a LIDAR project whre error
can be introduced :

- Incorrect project boundary
- Wrong horizontal or vertical datum
- Conversion and translation
- Ground sample distance inadequate to meet accuracy
expectations
- Flight line breaks because of extreme elevation change -
- Beam width too small or too large
- Pulse rate and/ or scan rate not correct for desired
flying altitude and vertical accurac y
planning
- Field of view too wide for adequate penetration
in vegetation
- Lack of adjacent overlap could cause data
“holiday” (missing data)
- Inadequate project procedures and documentation
Poor communication with internal and external
clients
- No field and office data management plan
 ground support
- Erroneous reference station (horizontal or vertical)

Q
- GPS baseline distance too long
- No redundant GPS receivers in case a receiver malfunctions
UALITY
- GPS base station problems ( not enough satellites, incorrect antenna-height

C
mesurement, battery failure, vandalism, etc)
-
ONTROL Postprocessing error (poor constraint network, lack of local control
knowledge, datum transformation,etc)
- Operation error

- Wrong navigation input (incorrect

coordinate system) airborne LIDAR acquisition - Incorrect office boresiting

LIDAR postprocessing
- Laser malfunction - Application of wrong horizontal and vertical
- IMU malfunction survey adjustments
- AGPS problem (onboard antenna offset or - Incorrect Calibration of each flight line to
system failure) adjacent lines
- Premission and/or postmission calibration - Breaklines not referencing the LIDAR data
not performed during compilation
- Aircraft electrical problem
- Operator error
 KEYS TO A SUCCESSFUL LIDAR PROJECT

Q
- Understand the mapping requirements and the purpose for completing a
LIDAR project
UALITY - All LIDAR companies and equipment are not created equal. Utilize a

C
Qualification-Based Selection (QBS) process to select a LIDAR consultant
- Hire a photogrammetric firm that owns a LIDAR sensor. Subconstracting
ONTROL
LIDAR services can be risky

- Include a detailed quality control and
acceptance plan in every project
- Dedicate the appropriate amount of
management and technical resources to the
project
- Know exactly how the quality control is
going to be performed by the consultant.
- Understand the differences in LIDAR technology
- Determine (and be very clear on) which accuracy
specification is going to be adhered to. Do not “mix and
match” accuracy standards and terminology
- Do not exclude ground-truth surveying from a project
- Request a LIDAR flight plan in the Request for Qualification
(RFQ) that clearly demonstrates the consultant’s
understanding of the acquisition issues
 LIDAR LIDAR data is being used for a wide variety of environmental,
A P P L I C AT I O N S transportation, and land-planning analysis applications,
Typical applications are briefly described as follow
CONTOUR
MAPPING SHORELINE
Lidar data can be used to TRANSMISSION LINE
ANALYSIS
create a DSM upon which STUDIES
contours are generated. LIDAR data is being used LIDAR data can be
for shoreline analysis used to monitor
3D PERSPECTIVE along coastal areas and to transmission lines.
ANALYSIS support environmental
Planimetric features can be analyses related to coastal
draped over the LIDAR data erosion, sediment ROUTE MAPPING
and DTM to provide tools transport, and vegetation
for 3D analysis and display areas. Dense LIDAR can be used
application
to differentiate objects
such as railroad tracks,
FLOODPLAIN LIDAR data can be damage to road surfaces,
MAPPING used to monitor and accident sites, traffic
predict slope failure d e n s i t y, a n d s u b t l e
LANDSLIDE

VOLUMETRIC
Accurate,high-
ANALYSIS

resolution LIDAR by quickly obtaining changes in slope or grade

STUDIES
data is being used to highly accurate and on roadways and railways
support floodplain dense elevation data without interrupting the
mapping and and determining slope services.
enhancement information.
applications.
Planning and

CELLULAR
NETWORK
managing cellular
VEGETATION networks requires
Vo l u m e t r i c s t u d i e s a r e o f t e n
MAPPING terrain elevation,
performed for landfills on an ground cover
LIDAR data can be used annual basis to determine the
to determine vegetated information, and

S
available life span of site. building outlines.
and nonvegetated areas.
 L I D A R A N D I T S A P P L I C AT I O N F O R I M P R O V I N G E X I S T I N G C U LT U R A L
H E R I TA G E S I T E S D E T E C T I O N T E C H N I Q U E , C O M B I N E D W I T H G E O M E T R I C
M E A S U R E S A N D H Y P E R S P E C T R A L D ATA

Introduction

The present stage of development of the methods and the sensors for airborne survey allows to efficiently mapping any sort of territory, generally
providing a high radiometric and spatial resolution.
Nevertheless, for particular applications as the archaeological purposes, the level of resolution required has to be extremely accurate.

For such not simple goal, we want to discuss about present advanced technique can give best data accuracy in archaeological purposes

LIDAR GEOMETRIC DATA

LIDAR DATA
Airborne LIDAR is extremely efficient to fulfil
increasing demand of high accuracy spatial
data.
This method is performed by flying over the
area to survey with an aircraft/helicopter
supplied with GPS, inertial, and laser devices,
and push-broom scannong the surface.
After such acquisition, the 3D position and
intensity value for each one of the so-scanned
points become available.
- LIDAR geometric information provided from laser scanned points makes
possible to create a high-resolution DSM.
- DTM could be obtained by filtering the natural/artificial objectrs from the
bare terrain.
- DTM is very essential for archaelogical applications whose function is to
investigate analyze micro-variations in elevation as indicator of eventual
ruins under the ground.
LlIDAR INTENSITY DATA
Obstacle to produce accurate imaging and intensity information :
spreading and absorption weakened the amplitude, depending on
the laser-target distacne, so the ground reflectance doesnt
reconstruct properly
 The mosts important products achievable from remote sensing data are the so-called “classification maps”

Among the preferred primary sensors for classification are hyperspectral sensors.

Advances in hyperspectral sensor technology are increasingly providing higher resolution and better data
for quality class maps

Principal Component Analysis

When dealing with hyperspectral images, with a large number of useful
bands, a fundamental task is to perform Principal Component Analysis
(PCA)

PCA functions to reduce the number of bands of datasets

MIVIS Hyperspectral Data AISA Hyperspectral Data

The MIVIS (Multispectral Infrared & Visible The AISA system is a hyperspectral sensor allowing excellent

Imanging Spectrometer) hyperspectral scanner is analytical, detection and mapping tool, ofeten used, among

a modular instrument composed of four other airborne sensor, to precisely detect many different

spectrometral. terrain features.

High level integration is the procedure where the data of previously
overlapped map are exploited to automatically product on or more
compeletly new digital map.

The complexity of the maps depends on the software reaching the

integration Future perspectives of these
study : relate the possibility
of reaching and “excavated
evidence” of the results
By integrating the DSM from LIDAR and hyperspectral here reached, together with
data, the following data are gained in automatic way :
the study of all other
1. The spatial correlation between mineral concentrations
possible spectral influences
and surface drainage
2. The distribution and drainage of deleterious materials
that buried archaeological

on the surface structures may stress

3. The locaion of vegetation in relationship to the terrain
slope and/ or elevation

AISA Data Processing
- AISA data processing is sill
being researched
- AISA uses particular
combination among the
bands
- Current resulting
classification map still shows
significant coloring
discontinuity
MIVIS Data Processing
- The biggest challenge of this process is to identify the most
useful bands to detect archaeological features and anomalies.
- The texture, soil moisture, and vegetation need to be identified
because they indicate the presence of buried structures.
- There are three steps to do this. The first step is to evaluate
correlation coefficient using correlation analysis among bands.
The next step is selecting the bands with the least noises using
Principal Components Analysis (PCA). The last step is to
interpret visually using ENVI software.
- The experiment result has been unsatisfactory because in the
experiment, some bands were damaged and no prior calibration
was performed. The experiment produced no anomaly values in
classification maps.
- Anomalous values of NDVI index were derived from the
MIVIS data
 AISA Data Processing
LIDAR Data Processing - AISA data processing is sill being researched
- AISA uses particular combination among the bands
LIDAR data were mainly used to
- Current resulting classification map still shows
produce an accurate grid DTM significant coloring discontinuity

MIVIS Data Processing

- The biggest challenge of this process is to identify the most useful
bands to detect archaeological features and anomalies.
- The texture, soil moisture, and vegetation need to be identified
because they indicate the presence of buried structures.
- There are three steps to do this. The first step is to evaluate
correlation coefficient using correlation analysis among bands. The
next step is selecting the bands with the least noises using Principal
Components Analysis (PCA). The last step is to interpret visually
using ENVI software.
- The experiment result has been unsatisfactory because in the
experiment, some bands were damaged and no prior calibration was
performed. The experiment produced no anomaly values in
classification maps.
- Anomalous values of NDVI index were derived from the MIVIS
data
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE
PERSPECTIVES
This topic deals with the possibility of enhance
archaeological sites detection throughout the
integration of LIDAR reflectance and geometric
measures and hyperspectral data. Future
Perspectives relate the possibility of reaching
and “excavated evidence” of the results here
reached, together with the study of all other
possible spectral influences that buried
archaeological structures may stress.
 Boccardo, P., Borgogno Mondino E., Giulio Tonolo, RSI, 2005, ENVI User’s guide, RSI
F., 2004. Application based on orthocorrected high
SOURCES AND REFERENCES

resolution and hyperspectral images. In : Int. USGS Spectroscopy Laboratory –

Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and (http://speclab.cr.usgs.gov/spectral.lib04)
Spatial Information Sciences, Instanbul, Turkey,
Vol. XXXV, Part B7, pp. 1067-1072. Digital Elevation Model Technologies and Applications :
The DEM Users Mannual, Appendix A & B, by the
Coren, F., Sterzsai, P., 2005. Radiometric correction American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote
in laser scanning. In : International Journal of Sensing, Bethesda, Maryland, 2001
Remote Sensing, ( in press).
Innovation in LIDAR Processing Technology –
Emmolo, D., Franco, V., Lo Brutto, M., Orlando, P., Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing
Villa, B. 2004. Hyperspectral techniques and GIS Magazine, by Mark Romani, Director of Merrick LIDAR
for archaeological investigation. In : Int. Archives of Operations, November 2004
Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial
Information Sciences, Istanbul, Turkey, Vol XXXV, URISA News, May/June 2004, Photogrammetric
Part B7, PP.492-497. Basemapping & LIDAR in Cook Country, by Ann
Kasunich, ALK Consulting Group